THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

DAVIS 


CAIvIKORNIA    STATE    Is/IINING    BURKAU. 

J.  J.  CRAWFORD,  State  Mineralogist. 


BUIvIvETIN    NO.   9. 


San  Francisco,  August,  1896. 


JVLINK  DRAINAGE), 


^au. 


'"f^-A 


^«a2 


^X 


PUMPS,    KTC. 


By   HANS   C.   BEHR, 

Mechanical  Engineer. 


COMPLIMENTS  OF 

W.H.  STORMS 

STATE  MlNCAAUOQIST 


A.    J.    JOHNSTON, 


SACRAMENTO: 
:    :    :    :    :    superintendent  state  printing. 
•     1896. 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNlA 
DAVIS 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Hon.  J.  J.  Crawford,  State  Mineralogist: 

Dear  Sir:  In  pursuance  of  your  instructions,  I  have  prepared  this 
Bulletin  of  the  State  Mining  Bureau,  treating  of  the  most  important 
applications  of  water-raising  machinery  for  the  drainage  of  mines.  It 
has  been  my  aim  to  make  this  a  short,  popular  exposition  of  methods, 
constructions,  and  principles  involved  in  the  machines  used  in  the 
extremely  varied  conditions  of  mining  on  the  Pacific  Coast;  and,  in 
view  of  the  modern  improvements  and  facilities  in  the  transmission  of 
power,  which  may  make  advantageous  the  use  of  machines  not  now 
employed  in  mine  drainage,  these  have  also  been  given  consideration. 
The  amount  of  ground  covered  in  the  treatment  of  each  subject  has 
necessarily  been  limited.  The  principles  governing  the  design  and  oper- 
ation of  apparatus  have,  however,  been  given  at  some  length,  in  order 
to  render  them  clear.  Only  where  absolutely  necessary  has  use  been 
made  of  mathematical  expressions,  and  these  most  simple. 

The  old  Cornish  and  other  non-rotative  engines  applied  to  the  so- 
called  Cornish  system,  which  are  to-day  practically  obsolete,  have 
received  only  the  brief  notice  due  from  the  standpoint  of  historical 
reference,  and  where  necessary  to  explain  motives  for  improvement  of 
methods.  As  akin  to  the  general  subject,  water-raising  machines 
applied  to  other  uses  than  mine  drainage  are  incidentally  mentioned; 
and  in  an  appendix  will  be  found  some  remarks  on  the  appliances  used 
in  irrigation  and  land  drainage. 

Among  the  difficulties  encountered  in  preparing  a  work  of  this  nature, 
and  which  cause  delay  in  its  completion,  are  those  of  obtaining  correct 
data  with  reference  to  the  practical  working  of  apparatus,  and  recon- 
ciling contradictory  statements  of  results. 

While  a  large  number  of  the  illustrations  were  made  from  designs 
prepared  by  the  writer,  many  are  reproductions  from  domestic  and 
foreign  technical  journals.  A  large  proportion,  however,  are  from 
engravings  kindly  loaned  by  manufacturing  firms  and  other  parties 
here  and  elsewhere.  The  thanks  of  the  writer  for  such  courtesies  are 
due  to  the  Union  Iron  Works,  Fulton  Engineering  and  Shipbuilding 
Works,  Pelton  Water  Wheel  Co.,  Dow  Pump  Works,  Crane  Co.,  Parke 
&  Lacy  Co.,  Dunham,  Carrigan  &  Hayden  Co.,  Joshua  Hendy  Machine 
Works,  Excelsior  Wooden  Pipe  Co.,  G.  M.  Josselyn  &  Co.,  and  Krogh 
Manufacturing  Co.,  all  of  this  city;  Eraser  &  Chalmers  and  the  Gates 


IV  LETTER   OF   TRANSMITTAL. 

Iron  Works  of  Chicago,  Henry  Worthington  Co.  of  New  York,  Knight 
&  Co.  of  Sutter  Creek,  A.  Chavanne  of  Grass  Valley,  A,  McCone  of 
Virginia  City,  and  Knowles  Pump  Works  of  New  York. 

The  works  of  Von  Hauer,  Weisbach,  Riedler,  and  others  have  been 
freely  consulted  in  preparing  this  Bulletin.  The  writer  is  also  indebted 
to  his  friend  and  colleague,  W.  R.  Eckart,  M.E.,  for  some  valuable 
negatives  from  which  cuts  were  prepared.  Special  thanks  are  due  his 
friend  Ross  E.  Browne,  E.M.,  for  valuable  advice  in  many  cases. 

I  herewith  acknowledge  my  obligations  to  yourself  for  careful  revis- 
ions of  the  manuscript  and  valuable  suggestions  on  the  arrangement  of 
the  book;  and  also  to  Statistician  Charles  G.  Yale  for  assistance  in  the 
preparation  of  the  manuscript  and  its  editorial  revision. 

Inasmuch  as  there  has  not  been  any  comprehensive  treatise  on  this 

subject  within  reach  of  the  majority  of  the  miners  of  this  State,  it  is 

expected  the  present  one  will  prove  to  be  of  interest  and  value.     If  it 

shall  have  the   effect  of   a  better  understanding  of   the  methods   and 

principles  involved,  the  writer  will  feel  he  has  contributed  his  mite  to 

the  general  advancement  of  the  most  important  industry  of  his  native 

State. 

Respectfully, 

H.  C.  BEHR,  M.E. 

San  Francisco,  August,  1896. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL iii 

LIST  OF»ILLUSTRATIONS - vii 

INTRODUCTORY-CONTROLLING  THE  WATER  IN  MINES 1 

INDEX 201 

SECTION  I.— GENERAL  FEATURES  OP  MINE  PUMPING-PLANTS. 
[The  figures  refer  to  the  numbers  of  paragraphs,  as  per  footnote  on  page  3.] 

Chapter  I.    Preliminary  Remarks  on  Mining  Pumps 

Water-raising  machines  used  in  mining,  1-8 ;  Conditions  affecting 
the  working  of  pumps,  9-11;  Starting  pumps,  12;  Priming  and  drain- 
ing, 13;  Methods  of  driving  pumps,  14;  Distribution  of  pumps,  15-17; 
Desirable  features  of  mining  pumps,  18-19. 
II.    Pipes 6 

Material  of  pipes,  3-6 ;  Wrought-iron  pipe,  7-11 ;  Table  of  dimensions, 
etc.,  of  lap-welded  tubes  of  a  prominent  manufacturer,  10 ;  Heavy  riv- 
eted pipes,  12-14 ;  Light  riveted  pipes,  15 ;  Wooden  pipes,  16 ;  Pipe  con- 
nections, 17  ;  Flanges,  18-21 ;  Leaded  joints,  22;  Packing,  23  ;  Lead  gas- 
kets, 24;  Elastic  copper  gaskets,  25-27;  Expansion  joints,  28-30;  Pipe 
supports,  31-33;  Bends  and  elbows,  34-35;  Diameter  of  water-pipes, 
and  its  relation  to  velocity  of  flow,  36-38;  Discharges  and  inlets  of 
water-pipes,  39-40 ;  Thickness  of  water-pipes,  41 ;  Air-chambers  on 
water-pipes,  42^4  ;  Relief-valves,  45 ;  Protection  of  water-pipes  against 
corrosion,  46-51 ;  Air  in  water-pipes,  52-56 ;  Notes  on  steam-  and  air- 
pipes,  57-63 ;  General  remarks,  64-69. 
III.    Pump-Valves 29 

General  types,  1-3  ;  Requirements,  4  ;  Valves  and  valve-seats,  5-12 ; 
Area  and  lift  of  valves,  13-15 ;  Action  of  valves,  16 ;  Number  of  beats 
of  valves,  17;  Mechanically  actuated  valves,  18;  Inclined  valves,  19; 
Multiple  valves,  20 ;  Spring-loaded  valves,  21 ;  Valve-chambers  and 
valve-seat  fastenings,  22-27  ;  Stop-valves,  28 ;  Spare  gear,  29. 


SECTION  II.— PUMP  SYSTEMS  OPERATED  BY  RODS. 

Chapter  I.    General  Description  of  System 43 

II.  PUMPRODS 45 

General  arrangement,  1-4 ;  Material  of  rods,  5-11 ;  Table  of  tests  of 
Oregon  pine  (Douglas  fir,  or  Pseudotsuga  Douglasu),  10;  Lengths  of 
pumprod  sections,  12-13 ;  Connections  of  wooden  main  pumprod  sec- 
tions, 14-17 ;  Connections  of  sinking  pumprods,  18-21 ;  Connections  of 
sinking-rods  to  main  rods,  22 ;  Preservation  of  pumprods,  23-25 ;  Con- 
nections to  motive  power,  26-27 ;  Catches  and  bumped,  stops,  28-34 ; 
Guides  or  stays,  35-42 ;  Adjustment  of  weight  of  pumprods,  balancing 
appliances,  43-57 ;  Changes  in  direction  of  pumprods,  58-59  ;  Strains  in 
pumprods,  60-62 ;  Wire  rope,  63-64. 

III.  Sinking-Pumps... 60 

Types  of  sinking-pumps,  1-10 ;   Sinking-rod,  11 ;  Column-pipe,  12-15 ; 
Pump-barrel,   16;    Suction-pipe  and   strainer,  17-23;    Suction-valves, 
24-25;    Buckets,  26-29;   Piston  sinking-pumps,  30;  Admissible  lift  of 
sinking-pumps,  31-36;  Volumetric  effect  of  lift  pumps,  37. 
JV.    Plunger  Pumps 72 

Relative  arrangement  of  parts,  3 ;  Plungers,  4 ;  Stuffing-boxes,  5-7  ; 
Pump-barrel,  8-11 ;  Valves  and  valve-chambers,  12-13 ;  Connection  to 
supply-tank,  14 ;  Supply-  or  station-tanks,  15-16 ;  Pump  supports,  17-20 ; 
Arrangement  of  pump-stations,  21-22 ;  Admissible  lift  and  plunger- 
speed,  23 ;  Relative  size  of  a  series  of  plungers,  24-28. 


VI  CONTENTS. 

Page. 
Chapter  V.    Power-Plants   for  Operating   Pumps  through    Rods.— Steam    En- 
gines  _.. 82 

Non-rotative  engines,  4-11 ;  Rotative  engines,  12-17 ;  Geared  engines, 
18-24 ;   Remarks,  25-28  ;  Hydraulic  motors  for  pumprods,  29-31 ;  Water- 
wheels,  32-36  ;  Hydraulic  pumping  engines,  37-47. 
VI.    Operation  and  Care  of  Pumps loi 

Starting  and  adjustment,  1-4;  Speed  of  pumps,  5;  Lubrication,  6; 
Air,  7;  Putting  pumps  out  of  operation,  8;  Repairs,  Stoppages,  9-14. 

SECTION  III.— DIRECT-DRIVEN  RECIPROCATING  PUMPS. 

Chapter  I.     General  Features 104 

Valves,  6;  Piston  pumps,  7-10;  Plunger  pumps,  11-15;  Air-chambers, 
16-20. 
II.    Non-Rotative  Pumps 115 

Sinking- pumps,  4-11. 

III.  Rotative  Pumps 119 

IV.  Underground  Pumps  Driven  KY  Steam 120 

Steam  supply,  1;  Types  of  steam  pumps,  2-6;  Condensation  of  ex- 
haust-steam, 7-13;  Mechanical  efficiency  of  direct-driven,  steam  pump- 
ing-plants,  14. 

V.    Underground  Pumps  Driven  by  Compressed  Air 123 

General  remarks,  1 ;  Efficiency  of  the  old  system,  2 ;  Modern  efficient 
compressed-air  transmission,  3-10 ;  Rise  in  temperature,  with  ratio  of 
extreme  pressures,  11-12 ;  The  Cummings  system  of  compressed-air 
transmission,  13-15 ;  Compressed-air  pump  engines,  16 ;  Reheaters, 
17-18 ;  Receivers,  19 ;  Compressors,  20-24. 

VI.    Pumps  Operated  BY  Attached  Hydraulic-Pressure  Engines 133 

Hydraulic  engines  controlled  by  valves,  2-3;  Valveless  engines,  4-6  ; 
General  remarks,  7-9. 
VII.    Pump-Stations 136 

SECTION  IV. 
Chapter  I.     Underground  Geared  and  Belted  Crank-Driven  Pumps 139 

SECTION  v.— BAILING-TANKS. 
Chapter  I 143 

Vacuum-tank,  3 ;  Bailing-tank  stations,  4 ;  Tank  discharges,  5-9. 

SECTION  VI. 

Chapter  I.     Pumps  and  Other  Appliances  for  Raising  Water  from  Moderate 

Depths  in  Mines .-. 151 

General  remarks,  1 ;  Reciprocating  pumps,  2. 
II.    Centrifugal  Pumps 152 

III.  Jet-Lifters;  Ejectors 160 

IV.  PuLSpMETKRS 162 

V.    Air-Lift  Pumps 166 

VI.    Siphons 172 

VII.    Water-Raising  Appliances  of  Small  Capacity  Operated  by  Men  or 

Animals 175 

SECTION  VII.— CONCLUDING  REMARKS  ON  MINE-DRAINAGE  PLANTS. 
Chapter  I 182 

SECTION  VIII.— APPENDIX. 

Chapter  I.     Water-Raising  Machinery  for  Irrigation  or  Land  Drainage 184 

General  remarks,  1-6 ;  Reciprocating  pumps,  7-11 ;  Centrifugal  pumps, 
12-18 ;  Power,  and  its  transmission  to  reciprocating  and  centrifugal 
pumps,  19-25;  Bucket-wheels,  26-28;  Paddle-wheels,  29;  Hydraulic 
rams,  30-49 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Fig.      1.  "Wooden  stave  pipe 9 

2.  Wooden  stave  pipe 9 

3.  Flange  connection  for  welded  tubing... 10 

4.  Male  and  female  flanges 10 

5.  Flange  for  connection  to  flanged  casting... 11 

6.  Screwed  pipe-flanges.. 12 

7.  Threaded  pipe-joint 12 

8.  Flange- and  thimble-connection  of  welded  tubes 13 

9.  Leaded  joint  for  riveted  pipe 13 

10.  Converse  pipe-joint 14 

11.  Lead-pouring  clamp.. ^ 14 

12.  Packing  for  male  and  female  flanges 15 

13.  Elastic  copper  gasket  for  flange-packing 15 

14.  Flange-packing  for  heavy  pressure 16 

15.  Flange-packing 16 

16.  Normandy  pipe-joint 16 

17.  Expansion  joint 17 

18.  Expansion  joint 17 

19.  Swinging-pipe  expansion  joint 18 

20.  Column-pipe  stay 19 

21.  Saddle-clamp  for  column-pipe 20 

22.  Column-pipe  support 20 

23.  Angle-packing  for  slight  changes  in  direction  of  flanged  pipes 21 

24.  Pump-column  discharge-top 22 

25.  Asphalt  bath  for  dipping  pipes _ 24 

26.  Iron  pipe  with  wooden  protective  lining 25 

27.  Air-valve 26 

28.  Air-valve 26 

29.  Air-valve 27 

30.  Air-valve 27 

31.  Air-valve 27 

32.  Hinged  valves  with  elastic  face  and  brass  seat 30 

33.  Double  leather-hinged  valve 31 

34.  Hinged-valve  with  wood-faced  seat... 31 

35.  Spring-loaded  rubber  disk- valve 32 

36.  Metal-encased  composition-rubber  disk-valve 32 

37.  Straight-lift  valve  of  metal,  with  elastic  face 32 

38.  Flexible  rubber  disk-valve 33 

39.  Annular  straight-lift  valve,  with  inner  and  outer  seat 34 

40.  Mechanically  actuated  valve 34 

41.  Double  inclined  hinged  valves  with  spring  stops 35 

42.  Riedler  pump-valves  and  mechanism 36 

43.  Hinged  valve  with  inclined  seat 37 

44.  Hinged  valve  and  chamber  in  incline 37 

45.  Double  hinged  valve 38 

46.  Multiple  valves 38 

47.  Multiple  valves 39 

48.  Valve-chamber 41 

49.  Cross-section  of  iron  main  pumprod 46 

50.  Iron  strapping-plates  to  connect  wooden  main  pumprod  sections 48 


Viii  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.* 

Page. 

Fig.    51.  Wooden  strapping-plates  to  connect  wooden  main  pumprod  sections 48 

52.  Lapped  joint  in  wooden  main  pumprods 48 

53.  Strapped  joint  in  wooden  sinking-rod 48 

54.  Strapped  joint  in  wooden  sinking-rod 48 

55.  Iron  sinking-rod  connection,  with  wearing-ring 50 

56.  Connection  of  iron  sinking-pumprod  sections _.  50 

57.  Offset  and  clamps  for  holding  wooden  sinking-rod  to  wooden  main  rod ...  50 

58.  Offset  bracket  for  clamping  wooden  sinking-rod  to  wooden  main  rod 50 

59.  Offset  bracket  for  connecting  iron  sinking-rod  to  wooden  main  pumprod  .  51 

60.  Connection  of  wooden  pumprod  to  bob  or  beam 52 

61.  Connection  of  wooden  pumprod  to  bob  or  beam 52 

62.  Wooden  catches  on  wooden  pumprod 52 

63.  Cast-iron  catches  on  wooden  pumprod 52 

64.  Elastic  bumper  for  pumprod  catches  ..- 53 

65.  Board  bumper  for  pumprod  catches  — 53 

66.  Pumprod  guides - - -.  54 

67.  Clamps  to  hold  wearing  strips  on  pumprod 54 

68.  Guide  for  wooden  pumprod  at  strapped  joint... 54 

69.  Sweep-stay  for  wooden  pumprod : 55 

70.  AVooden  balance-bob  and  station  timbering opposite  57 

71.  Iron  balance-bob opposite  57 

72.  Single  balance-bob  connection  to  pumprod opposite  57 

73.  Divided  balanced  pumprod .-. opposite  58 

74.  Divided  balanced  pumprod - opposite  58 

75.  Divided  balanced  pumprod opposite  58 

76.  Divided  balanced  pumprod opposite  58 

77.  Double  balanced  pumprod  for  change  of  direction opposite  58 

78.  Angle  bellcrank  for  change  in  direction  of  pumprod opposite  58 

79.  Angle-bob  for  change  in  direction  of  pumprod opposite  58 

80.  Pumprod  guides  for  change  in  direction 58 

81.  Cornish  sinking-pump  with  rigid  suction-pipe 61 

82.  Cornish  sinking-pump  with  flexible  suction-pipe 61 

83.  Karlick's  sinking-pumps  with  guide  frame 61 

84.  Jackhead  pump .-. 63 

85.  Jackhead  pump 63 

86.  Double  discharge  for  sinking-pump  column 64 

87.  Lift-pump-bucket - 67 

88.  Lift-pump-bucket  without  packing 68 

89.  Knight's  piston  sinking-pump 70 

90.  Plunger  pump 72 

91.  Plunger  bracket .--  73 

92.  Plunger  connection  to  end  of  wooden  pumprod 73 

93.  Plunger  stutfing-box 74 

94.  Cornish  plunger-pump  station 75 

95.  Cornish  plunger-pump  station. 76 

96.  Cornish  plunger-pump  station,  with  elevated  tank 76 

97.  Flexible  connection  of  plunger-pump  to  station-tank 77 

98.  Cornish  plunger-pump  foundation 78 

99.  Cornish  plunger-pump  foundation 79 

100.  Cornish  plunger-pump  foundation 80 

101.  Cornish  plunger-pump  foundation 81 

102.  Rotative  beam  engine  for  operating  Cornish  pumps 83. 

103.  Horizontal  Davie  engine  for  operating  Cornish  pumps 84 

104.  Vertical  Davie  beam  engine  for  operating  Cornish  pumps 85 

105.  Davie's  compensating  lever  pump  engine 86 

106.  Rotative  engine  for  driving  Cornish  pumps  at  Ontario  Mine 87 

107.  Kley's  engine  for  operating  Cornish  pumps , 88 

108.  Regnier's  engine  for  operating  Cornish  pumps. 89 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS.  IX 

Page. 
Fig.  109.    Geared  engine  for  operating  Cornish  pumps 90 

110.  Geared  engine  for  operating  Cornisli  pumps 91 

111.  Bridges's  gearing  for  operating  pumps - 93 

112.  Arrangement  of  surface  works  at  mouth  of  shaft 95 

113.  Compound  gearing  for  Cornisli  pumps  operated  by  waterwheels 96 

114.  Pelton  waterwheel,  with  multiple  nozzles 98 

115.  Chavanne's  adjustable  nozzll  for  waterwheels.. 98 

116.  Knight's  hydraulic  pumping  engine 99 

117.  Duplex  direct-acting  pump,  with  multiple  valves 105 

118.  Hanarte's  pump 106 

119.  Pump,  with  mechanically  actuated  valves 107 

120.  Direct-acting  piston  pump — 108 

121.  Direct-acting  piston  pump 109 

122.  Direct-acting  piston  pump,  with  exchangeable  cji-linder  liner. 109 

123.  Piston,  with  double  cup-leather-packing 110 

124.  Piston  pump,  with  lubrication  through  hollow  piston-rod 110 

125.  Double-acting  plunger  pump,  with  compound  steam  end Ill 

126.  Duplex  double  plunger  pump 111 

127.  Double-acting  plunger  pump 112 

128.  Differential  plunger  pump --  113 

129.  Differential  plunger  pump 113 

130.  Bucket  plunger  sinking-pump 114 

131.  Differential  plunger  sinking-pump 116 

132.  Differential  plunger  sinking-pump,  in  section 117 

133.  Centrifugal  sand-separator  for  suction-pipe 116 

134.  Telescope-pipe 118 

135.  Elevated  exhaust-pipe  to  condenser 121 

136.  Riedler  pump,  with  engine --  122 

137.  Riedler  pump,  with  engine 124 

138.  Pump-station  for  direct-acting  pump 125 

139.  Efficiency  diagram  for  ordinary  compressed-air  transmission 126 

140.  Efficiency  diagram  for  reheated  air,  with  compound  compression 127 

141.  Efficiency  diagram  for  reheated  air,  with  compound  compression 128 

142.  Efficiency  diagram  for  Cummings  double-pipe  system 129 

143.  Efficiency  diagram  for  Cummings  double-pipe  system,  with  reheating 130 

144.  Underground  hydraulic  pumping-engine 133 

145.  Davie  steam  pump  for  transmitting  power  through  water-pipes 133 

146.  Hydraulic  rods 134 

147.  Pump-station,  with  duplex  rotative  steam  pumps - 136 

148.  Pump-station  for  direct-acting  pump  in  incline 137 

149.  Geared  horizontal  triple  plunger  pump  driven  by  electric  motor.. 139 

150.  Belted  vertical  triple  plunger  pump 140 

151.  Geared  plunger  pump 141 

152.  Gear  with  angle-teeth 142 

153.  Water-bucket... 143 

154.  Bailing-tank,  with  side  discharge .  143 

155.  Artificial  sump  for  bailing-tanks 144 

156.  Vacuum  bailing-tank.. 144 

157.  Charging  reservoir  for  bailing-tanks 145 

158.  Dumping  bailing-tank  for  vertical  shaft 146 

159.  Dumping  bailing-tank  for  inclines 147 

160.  Incline  bailing-tank  for  use  in  train  or  tandem 148 

161.  Train  of  bailing-tanks  in  incline 149 

162.  Low-lift,  vertical,  single-acting  steam  pump 151 

163.  Construction  of  ordinary  centrifugal  pump. 152 

164.  Richards's  centrifugal  pump 153 

165.  Centrifugal  pump  with  vertical  axis --  154 

166.  Centrifugal  pump  for  utilizing  energy  of  motion  of  liquid 155 


X  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS, 

Page. 
Pig.  167.    Centrifugal  pump  with  double  inlet 156 

168.  Centrifugal  pump  in  dug  well  or  shaft 158 

169.  Compound  centrifugal  pump _ 159 

170.  Steam-ejector 16^ 

171.  Water-jet  lifter __ iqo 

172.  Section  of  Hall's  pulsometer... 163 

173.  Outside  view  of  Hall's  pulsometer K 164 

174.  Installation  of  a  pulsometer _.  i65 

175.  Korting's  pulsometer _ __ i65 

176.  Air-lift  pump I67 

177.  Air-lift  pump I67 

178.  Appliance  for  measuring  air 168 

179.  Diagram  of  least  compression  work .  169 

180.  Compound  air-lift  pump 17I 

181.  Siphon 172 

182.  Siphon  with  air-pump I74 

183.  Restarting  siphon 174 

184.  Hand  pump _._ 175 

185.  Low-lift  hand  pump 176 

186.  Chinese  pump I77 

187.  Water-elevator 178 

188.  Horse-power  hoister I79 

189.  Horse-power  operating  pump  through  crank 180 

190.  Deep-well  pump  for  bored  wells 185 

191.  Surface  engine  for  deep-well  pumps 185 

192.  Deep-well  lift  pump  for  dug  wells 186 

193.  Deep-well  plunger  pump  for  dug  wells 187 

194.  Crank  and  gearing  for  operating  deep-well  pump 188 

195.  Fynje's  land-drainage  pump 189 

196.  Air-chamber  and  check-valve  in  discharge-pipe  of  centrifugal  pump 190 

197.  Bucket-wheel _ 191 

198.  Bucket-wheel  driven  by  current 192 

199.  Paddle  water-lifting  wheel 193 

200.  Hydraulic  ram I94 

201.  Pearsall's  hydraulic  ram 195 

202.  Details  of  Pearsall's  hydraulic  ram 196 

203.  Leblanc's  suction  ram I97 

204.  Siphon  ram  of  Lemichel 198 

205.  Detail  of  siphon  ram ._  198 

206.  Installation  of  a  siphon  ram 200 


MINE  DRAINAGE,  PUMPS,  ETC. 


By  HANS  C.  BEHR,  Mechanical  Engineer. 


I]srTRODXJCTORY^. 
CONTROLLING  THE  WATER  IN  MINES. 


Mines  worked  through  shafts  are  subject  to  flooding  by  penetrating 
water-bearing  ground.  Even  if  not  encountered  at  first,  water  is  liable 
to  be  struck  at  any  time,  and  appliances  should  therefore  always  be  in 
readiness  to  handle  it.  For  moderate  inflow  the  water  can  generally  be 
hoisted  in  bailing-tanks  without  encroaching  too  much  on  the  time 
required  f©r  other  hoisting  operations.  When,  however,  a  large  per- 
manent flow  is  struck,  the  entire  hoisting  capacity  may  be  required  for 
bailing  until  a  suitable  pumping-plant  can  be  installed. 

In  deciding  upon  the  capacity  of  a  proposed  pumping-plant,  it  is 
necessary  to  ascertain  as  nearly  as  possible  the  maximum  quantities 
of  water  that  may  be  encountered  at  different  levels.  In  well-opened 
mines  this  can  generally  be  done  without  difficulty;  not  so  in  sinking  a 
shaft  in  new  ground.  But,  if  other  mines  are  adjacent,  a  record  of 
their  water  production  is  a  very  good  guide. 

The  pumping-plant  should  be  able  to  handle  a  much  larger  quantity 
of  water  than  any  recorded  maximum,  so  that  a  considerable  increase 
can  be  taken  care  of  without  resorting  to  bailing.  Bailing  arrange- 
ments should,  however,  also  be  in  readiness  to  meet  at  once  any  extra- 
ordinary increase  that  may  occur  at  any  time. 

The  water  is  generally  found  in  a  mine  at  various  levels,  and,  where 
economy  rather  than  simplicity  is  the  object,  any  considerable  quan- 
tity of  water  should  be  collected  and  led  to  pumps  at  the  levels  where 
it  issues,  and  not  be  permitted  to  first  find  its  way  to  the  bottom, 
from  where  it  would  have  to  be  raised  the  entire  height  to  the  sur- 
face, thereby  increasing  the  cost  of  pumping  in  proportion  to  the 
increased  lift  for  that  part  of  the  water. 

In  many  mines,  the  quantity  of  water  varies,  not  only  as  new  bodies 
are  tapped  or  opened  ones  drained,  but  also  with  the  seasons  of  the 
year;  and  observations  extending  over  at  least  a  year  should  therefore 
be  available  for  fixing  on  the  capacity  of  a  pumping-plant.  In  the 
Kennedy  Mine,  Amador  County,  California,  the  water  production 
varies  from  75,000  gals,  per  day  during  the  dry  season  to  150,000  gals. 
during  the  wet  season,  and  is  handled  by  bailing-tanks. 


2  MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC. 

The  generally  variable  nature  of  water  inflow  necessitates  a  corre- 
sponding variation  in  the  work  of  the  water-raising  apparatus.  Bailing 
adapts  itself  most  readily  to  such  variation,  as  it  gives  equal  though 
low  mechanical  efficiency  for  a  very  wide  range  of  capacity.  With 
pumps  the  case  is  different,  since  the  number  or  length  of  strokes  can 
only  be  varied  economically  within  certain  limits. 

Mine  pumping-plants  should  be  designed  and  constructed  with  the 
aim  of  obtaining  the  greatest  possible  security  against  breakdowns, 
and  at  the  same  time  admitting  of  rapidly  making  repairs  and 
replacing  worn  parts.  If  possible,  the  pumping-plant  should  also  be 
so  designed  that  it  will  give  the  highest  mechanical  efficiency  for  that 
rate  of  flow  which  prevails  most  of  the  time  and  furnishes  the  largest 
proportion  of  all  the  water.  Large  excess  over  this,  if  known  to  be  of 
short  duration,  can  be  taken  care  of  by  bailing-tanks  or  cheaper  and 
less  efficient  emergency-pumps.  A  sudden  influx  of  large  quantities  of 
water  can  be  handled  by  bailing  with  powerful  direct-acting  hoisting 
engines,  which  bring  the  tanks  to  the  surface  rapidly.  Often  a  mechan- 
ically less  efficient  plant  may,  owing  to  other  conditions,  prove  to  be 
commercially  the  most  efficient. 

Timbered  shafts  are  universally  used  in  the  West.  They  are  gener- 
ally arranged  with  three  compartments — two  for  hoisting,  and  one 
for  the  pumps.  The  latter  should  be  partitioned  off  from  the  hoisting- 
compartment,  so  that  it  can  be  made  to  serve  as  upcast  to  ventilate  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft,  because  the  pump-shaft  is  usually  warmer  than 
the  hoisting-compartments,  due  either  to  steam-pipes  for  operating 
direct-acting  pumps,  or  to  the  warm  water  in  the  column-pipes. 

Where  the  mine  has  two  separate  shafts  connected  below,  so  that  one 
serves  as  upcast  shaft,  the  pumps  should,  if  possible,  be  placed  in  the 
latter. 

The  kind  of  pumps,  source  of  power,  and  the  means  of  transmitting 
this  to  the  pumps  underground,  depend  on  surrounding  conditions,  and 
only  a  careful  study  of  these  can  decide  the  proper  kind  of  plant  to  be 
adopted. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


SECTIOISr   I. 

GENERAL  FEATURES   OF  MINE  PUMPING-PLANTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Preliminary  Remarks  on  Mining  Pumps. 

1.1.01.*  Water-Raising  Machines  Used  in  Mining.  The  pumps  used 
in  pumping  out  mines  are  chiefly  reciprocating.  Centrifugal  pumps 
find  some  application  for  low  lifts,  and  generally  in  open  workings. 
Of  other  water-raising  appliances  used,  the  bailing-tank  is  the  principal 
one,  and  finds  a  wide  range  of  application.  Pulsometers  are  used  as  a 
low-lift  auxiliary  to  pumps,  etc.  The  same  is  true  of  ejectors.  It  is 
also  occasionally  possible  to  employ  siphons  for  raising  water  over  an 
eminence. 

1.1.02.  Reciprocating  pumps  may  be  divided  into  plunger,  piston, 
and  bucket  (or  lift)  pumps. 

1.1.03.  The  oldest  pump  used  in  mines  is  the  draw-lift  pump,  with 
a  valved  bucket  working  in  the  barrel.  The  modern  forms  of  this  type 
of  pump  are  much  used  for  sinking  where  the  pumps  are  operated  by 
rods.  They  are  not  suitable  for  working  against  heads  of  over  200'.  The 
pump-barrels  and  bucket-packing  also  are  exposed  to  great  wear,  par- 
ticularly when  the  water  carries  sand.  The  bucket  cannot  be  packed 
while  the  pump  is  running.  Nevertheless,  their  use  in  mining  is  very 
extensive.  In  the  Cornish  system  they  are  generally  arranged  so  that 
the  bucket  can  be  hauled  up  through  the  column-pipe  for  repairs. 

1.1.04.  Plunger,  or  force,  pumps  are  suitable  for  much  higher  lifts. 
Vertical,  single-acting  plungers  are  the  typical  form  of  the  modern 
pumprod  system.  In  these  the  plunger-packing  can  be  taken  up  while 
the  pump  is  running,  and,  as  the  packing  is  located  at  the  highest  part 
of  the  pump-barrel,  away  from  the  course  of  the  water,  little  sand  or 
grit  is  liable  to  reach  it.  The  pump  can,  therefore,  run  quite  a  long 
time  before  repairs  are  required  at  that  point. 

1.1.05.  Horizontal,  double-acting  plungers  are  generally  used  for 
high-pressure,  direct-driven  pumps.  These  are  arranged  either  with  or 
without  cranks  and  flywheels.  In  the  former  case  they  are  called 
direct-acting  pumps;  in  the  latter,  rotative  pumps.  Flywheel,  or  double- 
crank  pumps  of  this  class,  with  mechanically  actuated  valves  designed 
by  Riedler,  have  been  used  continuously  for  single  lifts  of  1,300', 

1.1.06.  Piston  pumps  are  suitable  only  for  lower  pressures.  The 
piston-packing  and  cylinder  are  subject  to  wear,  while  the  pump  must 
be  stopped  and  the  piston  taken  out  to  pack  it. 

1.1.07.  Centrifugal  pumps  are,  as  generally  constructed,  only  suit- 
able for  low  lifts,  but  are  capable  of  handling  large  volumes  of  water. 

*The  numbers  at  the  beginning  of  the  paragraphs  are  so  arranged  that  the  first  figure 
denotes  the  Section,  the  next  two  figures  the  Chapter,  and  the  last  two  the  Paragraph. 
Thus,  1.5.17,  means  the  17th  Partigraph  in  Chapter  V  of  Section  I. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


As  they  have  no  valves,  the  water  may  contain  large  quantities  of  sand 
and  gravel  without  impairing,  the  efficiency  of  the  pumps  while  they 
last.  The  capacity  of  centrifugal  pumps  can  only  be  varied  economic- 
ally within  very  narrow  limits,  as  they  require  to  be  run  at  a  certain 
speed  to  pump  against  a  given  head. 

1.1.08.  Injectors,  pulsometers,  etc.,  are  not  economical  water-raising 
machines,  and  can  only  be  considered  as  temporary  appliances  or  as 
substitutes  for  better  apparatus  during  its  repair.  The  steam  used  to 
operate  them  acts  so  that  a  large  proportion  of  its  energy  is  wasted  by 
being  applied  to  heat  the  water  which  they  deliver.  For  admissible 
application,  see  2.3.33. 

1.1.09.  Conditions  Affecting  the  Working  of  Pumps.  The  operation 
of  pumps  is  influenced  by  many  conditions:  the  height  above  sea-level; 
the  barometric  pressure;  the  temperature  of  the  water  pumped;  the 
size,  length,  and  course  of  the  suction-  and  delivery-pipes;  the  area, 
weight,  and  lift  of  valves;  etc.  The  height  above  sea-level,  and  there- 
fore the  existing  atmospheric  pressure,  limits  the  height  to  which  water 
may  be  drawn  by  suction  or  the  velocity  with  which  it  will  follow  the 
piston  or  plunger,  thereby  limiting  the  speed  of  the  pump  for  a  given 
suction  lift.  The  higher  the  temperature  of  the  water  the  less  will  be 
the  admissible  suction  lift,  because  if  the  reduction  of  pressure  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  suction-pipe  be  sufficient,  the  water  will  begin  to  boil 
at  a  temperature  much  below  that  at  which  it  would  boil  under  atmos- 
pheric pressure,  and  give  off  steam,  which  will  fill  the  pump-barrel, 
instead  of  the  water  doing  so.  The  suction  lift  must  therefore  be  kept 
so  low  that  the  pressure  will  be  sufficient  to  prevent  steam  from  form- 
ing. The  suction  height  is  the  vertical  distance  from  the  level  of  the 
suction  water  to  the  highest  point  of  the  piston  displacement  and 
spaces  connected  with  it.  The  greater  also  the  head  pumped  against 
the  less  is  the  admissible  speed,  because  with  the  longer  column  shocks 
are  more  severe. 

1.1.10.  The  influence  of  the  pipes  connected  with  pumps  on  their 
action  is  treated  of  in  the  succeeding  chapter. 

1.1.11.  The  effect  of  different  constructions  of  valves  is  also  rele- 
gated to  another  chapter,  and  is  further  considered  in  connection  with 
the  various  pump  constructions  described  in  other  parts  of  this  paper. 

1.1.12.  Starting  Pumps.  In  starting  a  reciprocating  pump  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  air  from  the  pump-barrel  and  the  spaces  com- 
municating with  it.  Where  these  waste  spaces  are  large  compared  with 
the  piston  or  plunger  displacement,  and  the  head  pumped  against  is 
high,  the  air,  particularly  in  high  altitudes,  will  not  be  sufficiently 
compressed  on  the  working-stroke  to  lift  the  discharge-valve  and  escape 
into  the  discharge-pipe  in  case  it  is  full  of  water.  Again,  if  atmos- 
pheric pressure  exist  at  the  beginning  of  the  suction-stroke,  the  air  in 
the  pump  may  not  be  sufficiently  expanded  and  lowered  in  pressure  on 
completion  of  the  suction-stroke  so  that  the  outer  air  can  lift  the  water 
in  the  suction-pipe,  cause  it  to  force  open  the  suction-valve,  and  enter 
the  pump. 

1.1.13.  Priming  and  Draining.  The  operation  of  expelling  the  air 
from  a  pump  and  filling  it  with  water  is  called  priming.  Means  are 
generally  provided  in  a  by-pass  pipe  with  a  cock  for  priming  the  pump 


MINE    DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC.  .    5 

from  the  discharge-pipe  in  case  the  latter  already  contains  water,  the 
escape  of  air  being  then  generally  effected  through  a  cock  near  the 
highest  part  of  the  space  communicating  with  the  working-barrel. 
When  no  air-escape  is  provided,  the  air  will  be  forced  out  through  the 
discharge-valve  into  the  discharge-pipe,  as  soon  as  the  pump  is  put  in 
motion.  When  there  is  no  water  in  the  discharge-pipe,  pumps  with 
large  waste  spaces  generally  require  independent  means  for  priming 
them,  such  as  an  opening  with  a  funnel,  through  which  water  may  be 
poured.  Pumps  placed  below  the  supply  from  which  they  draw  do  not 
require  priming.  Pumps  and  pipes  should  be  fitted  with  means  for 
draining  them  to  prevent  freezing  and  to  draw  off  sediment. 

1.1.14.  Methods  of  Driving  Pumps.  Main  pumps  for  shafts  are 
either  operated  through  rods  from  a  motor  or  engine  at  the  surface,  like 
in  the  familiar  Cornish  system  of  pumping,  or,  as  in  more  modern 
methods,  by  transmitting  power  to  motors  directly  coupled  to  the 
pumps,  either  through  pipes,  in  the  form  of  steam,  compressed  air,  or 
pressure  water,  or  as  electricity  through  wires.  Some  one  of  these 
modes  of  transmission  is  required,  where,  as  is  usually  the  case,  pumps 
or  other  machines  are  used  to  raise  water  from  winzes  or  low  places, 
and  force  it  up  to  the  nearest  station-tank  at  the  pump-shaft.  Hand 
pumps  are  also  similarly  used  to  raise  small  quantities  of  water  from 
low  places  into  launders  in  the  drifts.  Pumps  should  be  started  in 
motion  gradually,  and  not  in  such  a  manner  as  results  from  throwing 
them  suddenly  into  gear  with  driving  machinery  already  in  motion. 

1.1.15.  Distribution  of  Pumps.  The  distribution  of  pumps  along  the 
line  of  the  shaft  depends,  first  of  all,  upon  the  lift  allowable  for  the 
individual  pumps.  This  condition  determines  the  spacing  of  pumps  in 
the  Cornish  system,  in  which  they  are  generally  200'  to  250'  apart. 
Where,  however,  the  pumps  are  capable  of  working  against  a  very  high 
head,  as  in  some  of  the  modern  direct-acting  types,  they  should,  for 
economical  reasons,  be  spaced  according  to  the  levels  at  which  water 
issues. 

1.1.16.  Though  the  water  which  is  generally  encountered  in  sinking 
a  shaft  does  not  always  issue  at  the  lowest  point,  it  is  nevertheless 
usually  necessary,  if  pumps  are  put  in,  to  have  the  lowest  pump  so 
arranged  that  it  can  follow  close  to  the  shaft  bottom  as  it  goes  down,  in 
order  to  be  prepared  to  handle  any  water  that  may  be  struck  there,  or 
which  may  flow  down  from  upper  levels.  Pumps  used  for  this  purpose 
are  called  sinking-pumps. 

1.1.17.  When  the  sinking-pump  has  been  lowered  so  far  that  the 
limit  of  its  admissible  lift  is  reached  in  raising  water  to  the  next  higher 
pump,  another  permanent  pump  is  put  in  near  the  bottom  of  the  shaft. 
The  sinking-pump  then  delivers  its  water  to  this  lowest  fixed  pump,  and 
is  made  ready  to  proceed  with  further  sinking. 

1.1.18.  Desirable  Features  of  Mining  Pumps.  The  welfare  of  a  mine, 
if  subject  to  influx  of  water,  depends  largely  upon  the  reliability  of  the 
pumps.  These  should  therefore  be  so  constructed  and  arranged  that 
there  Taa,j  be  the  least  possible  chance  of  theif  failure.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  main  desirable  features:  (1)  They  should  be  capable 
of  running  a  long  time  without  requiring  packing,  repairs,  or  adjust- 
ment; (2)  They  should,  if  possible,  be  capable  of  being  operated  and 


b    ,  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC. 

repaired  under  water.  This  is  particularly  desirable  in  the  lowest,  or 
sinking,  pump;  (3)  They  should  be  able  to  handle  sandy  and  some- 
times acid  water,  without  too  rapid  wear  or  deterioration. 

1.1.19.  In  addition,  they  should  be  so  arranged  with  reference  to  the 
driving  power  that  they  can  be  operated  for  a  wide  range  of  capacities 
to  adapt  them  to  the  varying  conditions  of  the  water  production  of  the 
miine. 

CHAPTER   II. 
Pipes. 

1.2.01.  Pipes  used  in  connection  with  mining  pumps  are,  firstly,  those 
for  conveying  the  water  handled  by  the  pumps,  constituting  in  reality  a 
part  of  the  pumps;  and,  secondly,  those  used  for  conveying  power  to  the 
motors  operating  the  pumps,  in  the  form  of  pressure  water,  steam,  or 
compressed  air.  While  the  main  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  treat  more 
at  length  of  the  former,  it  is  proper,  though  perhaps  to  a  more  limited 
extent,  to  consider  also  the  latter,  as  they  are  intimately  connected  with 
the  operation  and  care  of  pumps  in  mines. 

1.2.02.  The  suction-  or  inlet-pipes  and  the  discharge-pipes  of  a  pump 
or  hydraulic  pumping-engine  affect  the  working  of  these  to  a  great 
extent,  and  it  is  necessary  to  consider  them  in  a  different  manner  from 
ordinary  continuous-flow  water-pipes,  in  order  to  fix  upon  the  most 
advantageous  arrangement,  size  of  pipes  and  pumps,  and  admissible 
speed  of  the  latter. 

1.2.03.  Material  of  Pipes.  Cast-iron,  formerly  used  exclusively  for 
larger  pipes  subjected  to  pressure  underground,  is  now  rarely  employed 
in  American  mines  for  this  purpose.  While  this  material  is  less  subject 
to  corrosion  than  either  wrought-iron  or  steel,  the  pijies  made  from  it 
have  to  be  very  heavy  with  a  proper  factor  of  safety  to  withstand  the 
pressure,  and  the  sections  are  therefore  more  difficult  to  handle. 

1.2.04.  The  cheapness  of  wrought-iron  pipes,  their  greater  security 
under  water-hammer,  and  the  facility  with  which  sections  of  any  length 
can  be  cut  off  and  fitted  to  place  at  the  mine,  have  led  to  their  almost 
universal  use  in  general  practice. 

1.2.05.  In  cases  where  the  corrosive  action  of  the  mine-water  on  the 
iron  pipes  is  very  strong,  and  their  destruction  rapid,  pipes  of  other 
materials  have  been  used. 

1.2.06.  At  the  Barranca  Mine,  Mexico,  drawn  copper  tubes  were  put 
in  at  great  cost.  Wooden  pipes,  where  the  pressure  is  not  great,  or,  for 
higher  pressure,  iron  pipes  lined  with  wood,  are  sometimes  used. 

1.2.07.  Wrought-iron  Pipe.  Formerly,  column-pipes  larger  than  14" 
in  diameter  for  mine  use  were  made  of  boiler  plate,  riveted  hot,  often 
with  butt-joints  and  lap-strips;  the  rivets  being  countersunk  on  the 
inside.  Now,  iron  and  steel  lap-welded  tubes  up  to  24"  diameter  can  be 
obtained,  and  manufacturers  are  preparing  machinery  for  sizes  up  to 
80"  in  diameter. 

1.2.08.  Welded  pip^  are  either  lap-welded  or  butt-welded.  The 
latter  should  be  used  only  for  smaller  sizes,  and  for  moderate  pressure, 
as  they  are  liable  to  split  open  at  the  weld.     Lap-welded  tubes  or  hot- 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC.  7 

riveted  pipes  of  boiler  plate  are  the  only  wrought  pipes  suitable  for 
pump-columns  in  shafts,  and  for  all  purposes  where  heavy  pressures  and 
water-hammer  are  encountered.  Lap-welded  tubes  are  also  used  for 
steam-  and  compressed-air-pipes.  Iron  boiler  plates,  including  those  of 
which  welded  tubes  are  made,  have  less  strength  in  the  direction  of  their 
width  than  their  length,  which  latter  is  the  direction  of  strain  when 
manufactured  into  a  welded  pipe.  Sheets  of  mild  steel  are  homogeneous 
in  this  respect,  besides  possessing  greater  strength;  therefore,  for  larger 
sizes  steel  pipes  are  nearly  always  used.  Welded  pipes  may  be  obtained 
in  lengths  up  to  20'.  For  the  sake  of  facility  in  handling,  however,  the 
sections  composing  a  line  of  pipe  in  a  mine  are  usually  not  over  16'  in 
length. 

1.2.09.  Ordinary  pipes,  either  lap-  or  butt- welded,  having  screwed 
ends  for  connection  by  threaded  flanges  or  couplings,  are  classified  by 
manufacturers  according  to  nominal  inside  diameter.  The  actual 
diameter  is  generally  in  excess  of  nominal  diameter.  Lap-welded  tubes 
connected  by  other  means  than  the  regular  coarser  pipe  threads,  that  is, 
by  flanges  shrunk  or  riveted  on,  or  by  leaded  joints,  or  finely  threaded 
sleeves  or  flanges,  are  known  according  to  their  exact  outside  diameter. 
Such  pipe  is  generally  called  tubing;  when  connected  by  fine  thread,  it 
is  known  as  casing, 

1.2.10.  The  different  sizes  of  lap-welded  tubing  can  each  be  obtained 
of  different  thickness  of  material  to  suit  different  pressures.  The  fol- 
lowing table  of  standard  sizes  and  thickness  may  prove  useful  for 
reference : 

TABLE    I. 

Dimensions,  etc.,  of  Lap- Welded  Tubes  of  a  Prominent  Manufacturer. 


Thickness  of  Metal. 

Outside  Di- 
ameter of  Pipe, 

Inside  Di- 
ameter of  Pipe, 

Weight  per  Foot, 
in  pounds. 

Bursting  Press- 
ure, lbs.  per 

in  inches. 

in  inches. 

Birmingham 

Inches. 

sq.  inch. 

B 

Wire  Gauge. 

3 

2.73 

10 

.135 

4.05 

5,900 

4 

3.70 

9 

.150 

6.00 

4,800 

5 

4.67 

8 

.165 

8.40 

4,200 

6 

5.64 

7 

.180 

11.00 

3,800 

7 

6.64 

7 

.180 

13.00 

3,200 

8 

7f 

__ 

A 

15.65 

2,900 

9 

81 



23.10 

3,500 

10 

9| 



-,  ■ 

25.75 

3,100 

12 

lU 

._ 

■  ■ 

31.00 

2,600 

13 

12i 

.. 

1 

33.40 

2,400 

14 

131 



36.35 

2,220 

15 

14i 



';■ 

39.00 

2,070 

16 

■15i 

._ 

:■ 

42.00 

1,930 

18 

174 

__ 

A 

58.40 

2,150 

20 

19f 

__ 

65.15 

1,970 

22 

2l| 

__ 

fe 

85.00 

1,750 

24 

234 

-- 

1 

93.50 

1,930 

1.2.11.  The  thickness  given  in  the  table  is  known  as  standard.  Pipe 
can  be  made  one  or  two  gauges  lighter,  but  would  not  come  any  cheaper 
per  foot.  On  special  orders,  the  pipe  can  be  made  thicker  to  almost  any 
extent.  Numerous  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  in  properly 
welded  pipes  the  weld  is  practically  as  strong  as  the  rest  of  the  metal. 

2 — MD 


8  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

1.2.12.  Heavy  Riveted  Pipes  used  for  pump-columns  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  made  of  mild  steel,  because  then  they  can  usually  be  made 
from  a  single  sheet,  requiring  only  one  longitudinal  joint.  Steel  admits 
of  this  method  of  construction,  because,  as  stated  in  1.2.08,  it  has  about 
the  same  strength  across  the  sheet  as  lengthwise.  Iron,  being  fibrous  in 
its  nature,  and  having  less  strength  across  the  sheet,  should  therefore  be 
bent  so  that  the  fiber  runs  around  the  pipe,  in  order  to  secure  the  great- 
est strength.  As  the  sheets  are  limited  in  width,  this  necessitates  mak- 
ing a  wrought-iron  riveted  pipe  section  of  several  sheets  riveted  together 
by  circular  seams.     Longitudinal  seams  should  be  double-riveted. 

1.2.13.  Heavy  riveted  column-pipe  sections  are  usually  connected 
by  cast-  or  wrought-iron  flanges  riveted  to  the  sections.  Where  laid  on 
the  ground  and  not  liable  to  be  disturbed,  they  are  often  connected  by 
lead-caulked  joints,  with  cast  or  wrought-iron  rings  to  hold  the  lead. 

1.2.14.  Riveted  sinking-columns,  inside  of  which  a  pumprod  works 
as  in  the  Cornish  system,  should  have  the  rivets  countersunk  on  the 
inside,  and  the  circular  seams  made  as  butt-joints  with  outside  lap- 
strips,  so  that  the  lift-pump-bucket  can  be  drawn  up  and  lowered 
through  the  column-pipe  wihout  catching  on  obstructions. 

1.2.15.  Licjld  Riveted  Pipes*  are  used  principally  for  water  supply 
for  power  or  for  hj^draulic  mining  where  the  pressure  is  constant  and 
where  the  pipe  is  not  subject  to  being  crowded  out  of  line,  as  in  a  shaft. 
The  sheets,  rarely  thicker  than  i",  are  riveted  up  cold,  often,  on  account 
of  transportation,  at  the  point  where  put  in  use.  They  are  now  almost 
universally  made  of  steel.  If  made  of  iron,  the  sheets  must,  for  reasons 
previously  stated,  be  bent  in  the  direction  of  the  fiber.  The  longitudinal 
seams  should  be  double-riveted.  The  lengths  of  pipe,  except  for  very 
heavy  pressure  (when  both  internal  and  external  sleeves  caulked  with 
lead  are  used),  are  generally  joined  by  simply  slipping  the  ends  into 
each  other  like  the  sections  of  a  stovepipe.  The  sections  are  made 
larger  at  one  end  for  this  purpose.  These  pipes  will  stand  considerable 
pressure  when  it  is  constant,  but  they  are  not  suitable  for  withstanding 
any  water-ram.  Iron  pipes  of  this  kind  have  been  sul)jected  continu- 
ously for  many  years  to  a  constant  fiber-stress  of  17,000  lbs.  per  square 
inch  on  the  section  of  the  sheet.  At  the  line  of  the  rivets,  where  their 
insertion  reduces  the  iron  section  of  the  sheets,  the  stress  would  in  that 
case  be  about  22,000  lbs. 

1.2.16.  Wooden  Pipes,  made  of  staves  like  a  continuous  barrel,  hooped 
with  steel  bands,  as  in  Fig.  1,  have  been  in  use  for  a  number  of  years 
in  connection  with  irrigation  and  gravity  water  supplies  for  cities. 
They  are  economical,  especially  for  light  pressures,  and  may  be  used 
for  pressures  of  200',  if  steady,  the  spacing  of  the  bands  varying  with 
the  pressure.  They  are  very  smooth  on  the  inside,  and  offer  little  resist- 
ance to  the  flow  of  water.  They  are  not  suitable  for  pump-columns, 
but  there  are  cases  in  mining  where  this  class  of  pipe  can  be  used  to 
advantage.  The  water  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  steel  bands, 
and  cannot  corrode  them;  and  if  the  pipe  is  continuously  filled  with 
water,  the  wood  will  at  all  times  be  saturated  and  cannot  decay.    "Where 

*This  class  of  pipe  has  been  ably  discussed  by  Hamilton  Smith  in  his  "Hydraulics," 
and  also  by  Aug.  J.  Bowie  in  his  "Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Mining."  Numerous 
examples  of  (completed)  pipe-lines,  with  experiments  on  flow,  leakage,  and  stress  on 
material,  are  given  in  those  two  works. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  ^^'^.  9 

a  pipe-line  is  required  in  a  mountainous  country,  difficult  of  access,  it 
is  an  advantage  that  the  parts  of  which  this  pipe  is  composed  are  all 
light,  can  be  closely  packed,  and  easily  transported.  The  entire  pipe- 
line can  be  taken  down  without  any  injury  to  its  parts,  and  be  re-erected 


DETAIL  ofCOUPLINS  SHOE. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


elsewhere.  These  pipes  do  not  contract  and  expand  with  heat,  and  can, 
if  necessary,  be  left  on  the  surface.  The  pipe  is  very  rigid  and  not 
readily  flattened  by  snow  or  landslides.  Fig.  2  is  a  view  of  a  completed 
pipe-line  of  this  kind. 


10 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


i  P 

-a 

"    4 

V 

b 

v:l 

_i) 

1 

p///. 

1-4 

-t 

1 

Rv^ 

\% 

-.--d 

r^ 

) 

-a 


'J  ir.chrt. 


Fig.  3. 


/I  ineijrt 


Fig.  4. 


1.2.17.  Pij9e  Connections. 
Wrought-iron  pipes  are  con- 
nected principally  by  flanges, 
screwed  ends  and  couplings, 
leaded  or  cemented  sleeves,  or 
by  simply  slipping  the  smaller 
end  of  one  length  into  the 
larger  end  of  the  next.  In 
underground  work,  shafts,  etc., 
welded  tubes  with  flanges  or 
screwed  connections  are  used 
for  water-,  steam-,  and  air- 
pipes.  Leaded  joints  are  only 
used  where  a  water-pipe  is 
permanently  located  and  not 
liable  to  be  disturbed,  such  as 
pipes  for  water  distribution. 
They  are  not  suitable  for  pump- 
columns  in  shafts  or  inclines. 

1.2.18.  Flanges  are  the  usual 
means  of  connecting  pipes  un- 
derground. They  are  commonly 
made  of  cast-iron,  and,  in  case 
of  welded  pipe,  either  screwed 
or  shrunk  on  the  ends  of  the 
tube,  which,  in  the  latter  case, 
is  expanded  behind  the  flange, 
as  at  a.  Fig.  3,  and  then  beaded 
over  in  front,  as  at  h.  Instead 
of  expanding  the  pipe  behind 
the  flanges,  it  is  preferable  to 
have  the  bore  of  the  flange 
recessed,  and  to  hammer  the 
pipe  into  the  recess,  as  shown 
at  a.  Fig.  4.  This  gives  a 
firmer  hold  on  the  flange.  It 
is  sometimes  necessary  to  put 
in  rivets,  as  at  c,  Fig.  3,  in  case 
of  riveted  pipe  or  where  the 
pipe-line  is  subject  to  lateral 
disturbance.  Flanges  for  sink- 
ing-pumps, where  the  pumprod 
works  inside  of  the  pipe, 
should  have  these  rivets  coun- 
tersunk on  the  inside,  as  at  d^ 
Fig.  3.  In  putting  flanges  on 
pipes  care  must  be  taken,  in 
the  first  place,  to  have  their 
faces  come  square  with  the 
pipe,  and  also  to  have  the  bolt- 
holes  of  the  two  flanges  in 
line,    so    that    the    lengths    of 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


11 


a  column  or  pipe-line  are  interchangeable.  In  order  to  allow  for 
inaccuracies  in  this  respect,  and  also  to  provide  for  possibly  required 
variations  in  position  of  elbows  or  other  connections,  the  bolt-holes  are 
sometimes  made  oblong,  as  in  Fig.  5,  so  that  one  flange  can  be  slightly- 
rotated  upon  its  mate.  In  this  case  a  wrought-iron  washer  must  be 
placed  below  the  nut  to  give  it  an  even  bearing.     Such  a  washer  is  an 


IliTie/ies 


Fig.  5. 

advantage  also  for  ordinary  round  holes,  as  it  provides  a  better  bearing 
for  the  nut  than  the  rough  casting.  A  projection  c.  Fig.  3  and  Fig.  5, 
should  be  cast  on  one  flange  of  each  pair,  to  absolutely  prevent  the  bolt 
from  turning  when  the  nut  is  screwed  up.  Where  it  is  desirable  to  get 
the  flanges  of  as  small  diameter  as  possible,  bosses  are  carried  up  around 
the  bolt-holes  to  the  full  depth  of  the  flange,  Fig.  3.  In  this  way  the 
bolts  can  be  brought  closer  to  the  body  of  the  pipe  than  in  the  form 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  while  the  thinner  metal  between  the  bosses  affords 
facility  for  riveting  to  the  pipe.     Flanges  of  larger  diameter  are,  how- 


12 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


/imdes; 


ever,  always  required  where  the  pipes  connect  to  cast  elbows  or  nozzles, 
so  as  to  allow  room  for  the  bolt-heads  or  nuts  on  the  back  of  the  flange 
of  the  casting.  (See  Fig.  5.)  Where  a  greater  number  of  such  con- 
nections are  required,  it  is  sometimes  preferable  to  make  all  the  flanges 

of  the  larger  size.     Such   flanges 


should  be  ribbed  between  the  bolt- 
holes.  Nearly  all  flanges  obtained 
from  dealers  in  pipe  are  much  too 
light,  and  have  too  few  bolts  to  be 
suitable  for  pipes  subjected  to 
heavy  pressure  and  deflecting 
strains,  like  pump-columns  or 
high-pressure  steam-mains. 

1.2.19.  The  smaller  sizes  of 
pipes,  and  often  larger  ones  also, 
have  their  ends  threaded,  and  are 
connected  together  by  threaded 
sleeve-couplings  or  by  flanges 
screwed  on.  The  flanges  of  large 
steam-pipes  are  often  put  on  in 
^^^*^-  6.  this    manner.      This    method   of 

securing  flanges  is  generally  also  necessary  for  pipe  of  extra  thickness. 
Where  a  tight  pipe  is  required  under  high  pressure,  the  ends  are  some- 
times screwed  through  the  flange,  so  as  to  project  beyond  its  face,  and 
then  faced  off  level  with  the  flange.  This  is  a  good  plan  for  high- 
pressure  steam-pipes  where  leaks  are  liable  to  occur  at  the  threads. 
By  the  construction  described,  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  6,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  packing  entirely  prevents  leakage  at  the  thread  by  covering 
the  joint  between  pipe  and  flange.  Ordinarily  a  putty  of  red  lead  is 
used  with  threaded  joints.  For  air-pipes,  shellac  varnish  makes  a  very 
tight  joint. 

1.2.20.  A  water-tight  threaded  joint  may  also  be  secured  by  cutting 
away  a  portion  of  the  thread,  as  at  x,  Fig.  7,  and  wrapping  hemp  or 
wicking  into  the  groove  before  screwing  into  place.  This  joint  is  stated 
to  be  water  tight  under  heavy  pressure,  even  when  the  thread  is  so 
loose  that  the  pipe  can  be  rotated  by  hand. 

For  column-pipes  of  Cornish  pumps  screwed  •^^^  ^ 

flanges  are  not  generally  used;  nor  are  they 

used  in  such  cases  where  it  is  occasionally 

necessary  to  cut  pipes  to  lengths,  and  where 

screw-cutliing  machinery  of  large  size  is  not 

at  hand.    Where  flanges  are  used  on  riveted 

pipe  they  are  not  shrunk  on,  but  simply 

riveted  to  the  pipe,  and  the  latter  caulked, 

if  the  metal  be  sufficiently  heavy. 

1.2.21.  A  flange  connection  which  has  been  used  with  success  in 
English  collieries,  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  ends  of  the  tubes  are 
expanded  after  the  flanges  a  a  are  slipped  on.  When  jjut  together  the 
double  cone-ring  h,  with  packing  c  c  encircling  each  end,  is  inserted,  and 
the  bolts  in  the  flanges  drawn  up.  This  joint  has  been  used  for  water 
and  steam;  for  the  former,  under  pressures  up  to  4,000  lbs.  per  square 
inch.     The  inside  ring  and  the  outer  flanges  are  not  machined. 


Fig. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


13 


1.2.22.  Leaded  Joints.  Leaded  joints  are  usually  adopted  on  pipes 
which  are  not  liable  to  be  disturbed  in  position,  such  as  those  for  water 
supply  on  the  surface.     For  such  cases  they  make  the  most  suitable 


1/2  IDciff. 


Fig.  8. 

joint.  The  lead  serves  both  for  securing  the  connection  and  as  packing. 
A  lead  joint  much  used  for  riveted  pipe  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The  ends 
of  the  pipes  abut  on  each  other;  and  an  internal  sleeve  prevents  the 
lead  from  flowing  into  the  pipe.  An  outer  sleeve,  usually  welded,  holds 
the  lead,  and  must  be  sufficiently 
strong  to  resist  pressure  and  caulk- 
ing. Fig.  10  illustrates  the  Con- 
verse patent  leaded  sleeve- joint  for 
wrought-iron  pipe.  The  rivets  serve 
to  lock  the  pipe  into  the  sleeve  by 
their  entering  the  recesses  shown  in 
the  cut.  Fig.  11  illustrates  the 
pouring  clamp,  which  fits  the  pipe 
and  sleeve,  and  does  away  with  the 
necessity  of  clay  to  form  a  mold 
for  the  lead  when  poured.  After 
pouring,  the  lead  is  caulked  firmly 
into  place. 

1.2.23.     Packing.     The  material  commonly  used  for  securing  tightness 
of  flanged  steam-  and  air-,  as  well  as  water-pipes,  in  mines,  is  the  so- 


/Z  TncArs 


Fig.  9. 


14 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


Fie.  10. 


Fig.  11. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


15 


called  sheet-rubber  packing,  composed  of  alternate  layers  of  rubber  and 
canvas.  For  water-pipes  the  gaskets  are  made  of  a  thickness,  ranging 
from  i"  for  small  pipes,  to  yV'  ^^  4"  i^^  larger  pipes.  Where  the  flanges 
are  rough,  thicker  rubber  must  be  used  than  where  faced.  In  steam-pipes 
the  rubber  is  usually  not  over  yV  thick,  in  order  to  present  less  surface 
for  the  deteriorating  action  of  the  steam  and  hot  water.  It  is  always 
economy  to  use  the  best  grades  of  sheet  rubber.  Rubber  gaskets,  if  they 
have  been  in  place  for  some  time,  particularly  where  subjected  to  heat, 
adhere  very  firmly  to  the  flanges,  and  usually  tear  on  being  removed, 
thus  necessitating  new  ones.  Adhesion  may  be  prevented  by  rubbing 
graphite  on  the  surface  of  the  gasket  before  putting  in  place.  For 
heavier  pressure  the  flanges  are  sometimes  made  in  pairs,  "  male  and 
female,"  as  at  a,  Fig.  4,  the  recess  being  somewhat  deeper  than  the 
thickness  of  the  rubber  which  is  laid  in  it,  and  which  is  prevented  from 


Z  xTieAeS. 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


being  blown  out  by  the  inclosing  ring  of  metal.  The  packing  shown 
in  Fig.  12  is  particularly  adapted  for  heavy  pressures,  but  requires 
continuous  rubber  rings,  of  circular  or  square  cross-section,  to  obtain  the 
best  results. 

1.2.24.  Lead  Gaskets.  For  heavy  pressures,  where  rubber  is  liable 
to  be  forced  out  of  the  joint,  sheet-lead  gaskets  are  sometimes  used 
between  water-pipe  flanges,  these  being  usually  machined  in  such  a 
manner  that  their  faces  present  a  close  succession  of  annular  ridges, 
which  sink  into  the  lead  and  grip  it  tightly.  Lead  gaskets  are,  however, 
not  sufficiently  elastic  for  most  purposes,  and  are  liable  to  leak  upon 
the  least  crowding  out  of  line  of  the  pipe.  These  gaskets  are  also 
sometimes  used  with  male  and  female  flanges,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

1.2.25.  Elastic  Coyper  Gaskets.  A  very  efficient  and  durable  gasket 
for  steam-pipes  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.  It  is  made  of  a  ring  of  thin  copper, 
the  inner  and  outer  edges  being  turned  over  the  corresponding  edges  of 
a  rubber  gasket.  The  copper  is  about  3V'  thick,  and  the  rubber  y^". 
These  gaskets  are  best  made  small  enough  to  go  inside  the  circle  of  bolts 
in  the  flange. 

1.2.26.  A  flange-packing  used  for  a  head  of  1,700'  at  the  Mayrau 
shaft,  Kladno,  Bohemia,  and  which  has  been  very  satisfactory,  is  shown 


16 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


in  Fig.  14.  Here  one  of  the  flanges  is  recessed  at  a  to  admit  a  ring  b  of 
leather,  rubber,  or  metal,  of  L-shaped  section.  This  elastic  ring  is  held 
in  place  by  a  rigid  metal  ring  c,  the  whole  forming  a  packing  similar  to 
that  used  for  hydraulic-press  plungers.      (Modifications  of   this   form 


\/2  I'/it*'*". 


l/2]7>eie^ 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  15. 


will  readily  suggest  themselves;  for  example,  that  in  Fig.  15,  which 
could  be  used  with  ordinary  flanges  by  inserting  a  forged  distance-ring 
between  them  so  as  to  form  the  space  for  the  packing.) 


\/2  lirrXft 


Fig.  16. 

1.2.27.  In  the  Paris  compressed-air  power  transmission  system,  plain 
cast-iron  pipes  without  flanges  or  spigot  ends  are  used  for  the  mains. 
The  sections  are  connected  by  the  Normandy  joint,  which  consists  of  a 
sort  of  double  stuffing-box,  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  16.  It  is  very  flexible, 
and  almost  absolutely  tight  under  the  80  lbs.  pressure  used.  The  pipes 
are  not  turned  at  the  joint,  but  are  put  in  as  they  come  from  the 
foundry.  With  some  modifications  this  joint  is  also  suitable  for  higher 
pressures  in  column-pipes. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


17 


J. 


1.2.28.  Expansion  Joints.  For  long  pipes,  particularly  in  shafts, 
inclines,  and  levels,  and  for  pipes  rigidly  fixed  at  the  extremities, 
expansion  joints  must  be  used.     The  most  common  form  of   expansion 

joint  consists  merely  of  a  stuffing- 
box,  as  shown  in  Fig.  17,  or  of  a 
recessed  spigot  end  containing  hy- 
draulic packing,  as  in  Fig.  18.  The 
end  of  the  pipe  entering  the  stuffing- 
box  must  be  smooth,  and  is  best 
made  of  brass.  For  steam-pipes  in 
shafts,  expansion  joints  are  particu- 
larly necessary,  and  for  these  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  17  is  the  proper  form. 


\/Ji  irtc/ifs. 


\/Z  i'neXet, 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  18. 


The  form  Fig.  18  is  only  adapted  for  water-pipes.  Stuffing-boxes  in 
shafts  and  inclines  should  always  be  placed  so  that  the  gland  is  on  top, 
since,  if  placed  otherwise,  they  are  almost  sure  to  leak.  Expansion 
joints  are  usually  troublesome,  and   should  be  carefully  looked  after. 


18 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


V//////////////y////////////7.. 


/y^///////////////////////7?. 


Fig.  19. 


For  steam-pipes,  or 
where  the  water  is  hot, 
the  expansion  will 
necessarily  be  greater 
than  for  the  ordinary- 
variations  due  to  ipli- 
niatic  temperature. 
Both  these  variations 
can  always  be  calcu- 
lated; those  due  to 
settling  of  ground  or 
timbers  cannot.  Ample 
range  should  therefore 
always  be  provided,  so 
that  the  expansion 
joints  will  not  pull  out 
of  the  stuffing-box, 
which  would  be  a  serious 
matter  with  a  steam- 
pipe  under  ground. 

1.2.29.  An  expansion 
joint  composed  of  a 
double  swiveling  pipe- 
section,  shown  in  Fig. 
19,  was  used  at  the 
"  Combination  Shaft," 
Virginia  City,  Nevada, 
on  a  cast-iron  pipe  un- 
der very  heavy  water- 
pressure,  and  gave  good 
satisfaction.  One  of 
the  pipes  rests  with  a 
^  pedestal  on  a  support 
in  the  shaft,  the  other 
being  free  to  move. 
The  bolts  at  a  are  in- 
serted to  reinforce  the 
casting  at  the  danger- 
ous section.  No  pack- 
ing was  used  between 
the  faces  of  the  casting. 
The  threads  of  the 
swivel  bolts  h  were 
packed  by  winding 
wicking  around  a 
groove,  cutting  part  of 
the  thread  away. 
Where  the  range  of 
expansion  is  not  great, 
U-shaped  pipes  are 
sometimes  used  in 
steam-pipes  to  give 
them  a  certain  amount 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


19 


of  elasticity,  or  a  corrugated  section  of  pipe  made  of  copper,  brass,  or 
wrought-iron  is  used.  Such  joints  are,  however,  not  suitable  for  long 
pipes,  on  account  of  the  large  number  required  to  allow  for  the  varia- 
tion in  length.  Water-pipes  having  slip  joints  usually  do  not  require 
any  expansion  joints. 

1.2.30.  Water-pipes  laid  in  trenches  at  the  surface  do  not  require 
expansion  joints.  These  are  needed  where  pipes  are  laid  over  long 
bridges  or  trestle-work,  as  they  are 
there  exposed  to  changes  of  tempera- 
ture. Large  pipes  should  not  be  car- 
ried by  wire  cables  or  suspension 
bridges,  as  both  of  these  sway  the  pipe 
and  cause  strains  and  leakage. 


m 


n 


® 


I    V 

^ : 


® 


X 


J — iSj [Sj — L 


® 


'§' 


X  ® 


m 


S 
m 


X 


* 


It 


rVi 


X 


1.2.31.  Pipe  Supports.  Pipes  in  a 
vertical  shaft  should  have  their  weight 
well  supported,  and  they  must  also  be 
stayed  laterally  to  be  kept  in  line.  In 
the  Cornish  system,  with  pumps  not 
over  250'  apart,  the  columns  are 
usually  stayed  at  intervals  of  about 
50'  by  clamps  of  wood  or  iron.  Gen- 
erally, these  rest  on  beams  laid  across 
the  wall-plates  of  the  shaft  timbering, 
the  beams  often  serving  at  the  same 
time  as  supports  for  pumprod  guides. 
Such  a  stay  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 

1.2.32.  Posts  are  frequently  inserted 
between  several  sets  of  shaft  timbers 
below  the  pipe  supports,  so  as  to  dis- 
tribute the  weight  of  the  pipe  on  a 
number  of  wall-plates.  Sometimes 
the  pipes  are  clamped  directly  to  the 
wall-plates  with  an  intervening  saddle- 
piece,  as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  21,  which 
represents  a  heavy  form  of  such  a 
fixture  used  where  a  goose-neck  or 
offset-pipe  on  the  top  of  the  pump  Ml -\ 
clack-chamber  connects  to  the  column-  i 
pipe.  The  weight  of  the  column-pipe 
is  sometimes  also  carried  rigidly  by 
an  adjustable  bolt  support  (Fig.  22) 

clamped  to  the  pipe  below  a  flange  above  the  offset-pipe  over  the  clack- 
chamber.  There  should  be  only  one  such  rigid  connection  on  the  pipe, 
so  that  the  latter  can  expand  and  contract.  All  supports  and  stays 
should  be  frequently  looked  after,  particularly  where  the  shaft  is  in  bad 
ground  and  liable  to  be  crowded  out  of  line. 

1.2.33.  Water-pipes  in  inclines  are  usually  laid  along  the  lower 
side,  resting  simply  in  wooden  saddle-pieces,  which  serve  both  as  weight 
support  and  lateral  stays.  Steam-pipes  are  usually  hung  from  the 
roof  of  inclines. 

1.2.34.  Bends  and  Elbows.  Pipes  should  be  well  supported  at  bends 
and  elbows,  because,  in  addition  to  the  effect  of  the  weight,  the  unbalanced 


B 


X 


a/ 


Fig.  20. 


20 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS, 


ETC. 


pressure  of  the  water  tends  to 
crowd  the  pipe  toward  the  con- 
vex side.  Short  bends  in  riv- 
eted pipe  are  often  made  up  of 
sheets  riveted  up  like  the  pipe, 
flanged  welded  pipe,  short 
bends  are  made  of  castings. 
Where  the  velocity  is  great,  the 
bends  should  have  as  large  a 
radius  as  possible,  especially  if 
the  bend  be  through  a  consid- 
erable arc.  Slight  bends  in 
flanged  pipe  are  often  made  by 
inserting  between  the  flanges 
of  two  sections  of  pipe  a  ring 
with  inclined  faces,  on  each  of 
which  packing  is  placed,  as  in 

1.2.35.  Elbows  used  with  the 
ordinary  screwed  pipe  have  too 
short  a  bend  and  offer  too  much 
resistance  for  high  velocity  of 
flow.  In  case  of  high  velocity, 
it  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  use 
special  fittings.  The  ordinary 
malleable  iron  pipe-fittings  are 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.  22. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


21 


also  unsuitable  for  many  cases,  and  special  cast-iron  ones,  which  are  less 
liable  to  split,  are  used  for  work  requiring  special  care.  Some  machine 
shops  that  make  a  specialty  of  screwed-pipe  work  manufacture  fittings 
of  this  kind,  particularly  elbows  of  larger  radius  than  the  ordinary 
trade  fittings. 

1.2.36.  Diameter  of  Water-Pipes,  and  its  Relation  to  Velocity  of  Floio. 
The  diameter  of  the  suction-pipe  of  a  pump  should  always  be  such 
that  the  velocity  of  flow  required  by  the  speed  of  the  pump  can  be  main- 
tained by  the  excess  of  atmospheric  pressure  plus  any  available  head  on 
the  suction-pipe  over  and  above  the 
resistance  due  to  valves  and  pipes. 
The  suction-pipe,  for  single  pumps 
particularly,  should  be  as  short  as 
possible,  making  the  mass  of  water 
which  must  be  put  in  motion  from 
rest  at  each  stroke  a  minimum,  so 
that  its  motion  will  be  accelerated  in 
the  shortest  possible  time.  Where 
a  number  of  pumps  operate  through 
the  same  pipes  in  rotation  or  regular 
succession,  so  that  the  water  in  the 
suction-  and  discharge-pipes  is  al- 
ways in  motion,  the  size  of  the  pipes  --^ 
may  be  reduced.  Where  the  height 
from  the  suction  level  to  the  highest 
part  of  the  space,  the  volume  of  which 
is  affected  by  the  pump-displace- 
ment, is  great,  the  suction-pipe  must^ 
be  larger  than  where  this  height  is  'j^  j' 
small,  because  the  available  accel- 
eration due  to  excess  of  atmospheric 
pressure  is  less.  Since  the  mass  of 
water  to  be  accelerated  is  greater 
in  the  former  case,  the  admissible 
pump  speed  will  in  general  also  be 
reduced.  It  is  evidently  necessary 
that  all  pipes  be  tight  against  leak- 
age, but  with  suction-pipes  this  is  par- 
ticularly so,  in  order  to  prevent  air 
from  being  drawn  in,  which  would  Fig.  23. 

reduce   the   efficiency  of   the  pump. 

Where  water  is  forced  through  a  line  or  column  of  pipe  by  a  recipro- 
cating pump,  and  where,  therefore,  the  water  in  the  pipe  is  alternately 
started  and  permitted  to  come  to  rest,  the  velocity  of  flow  cannot  be 
allowed  to  be  great;  otherwise,  the  column  of  water  will  continue  its 
motion  for  a  short  interval  after  the  pumps  have  reached  the  end  of 
their  stroke,  and  will  then  fall  back  when  the  pump-piston  is  already 
on  its  return-stroke;  the  effect  being  to  close  the  discharge- valve  with  a 
blow,  whereby  the  entire  column  of  water  is  arrested  more  or  less 
suddenly.  This  is  very  liable  to  occur  in  the  Cornish  system,  where 
air-chambers  are  rarely  used,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  applying 
them  of  proper  size.     In  direct-acting  pumps,  which  make  a  greater 


UZincieti 


22 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


number  of  strokes  per  minute,  air-chambers  correct  this  evil  to  a  great 
extent  by  equalizing  the  flow  of  water  and  making  it  continuous. 

1.2.37.  The  least  size  of  pipes  is  sometimes  determined  by  other 
conditions;  as,  for  instance,  in  Cornish  sinking-pumps,  where  it  is 
desired  to  remove  the  bucket  through  the  column-pipe. 

1.2.38.  In  general,  the  discharge-pipe  need  not  be  larger  for  double- 
acting  pumps  than  for  single-acting  ones  of  half  the  capacity,  because 
the  velocity  of  flow  is  the  same,  the  water  being,  in  the  latter  case,  at 
rest  half  of  the  time.  Greater  velocity  may,  with  the  same  freedom 
from  water-ram,  be  given  to  a  short  column  of  water  than  to  a  long  one. 
For  example,  where  a  pipe  is  longer  than  the  height  vertically  pumped, 
as  in  inclines,  or  where  the  pipe  is  partly  horizontal  in  its  course,  the 
velocity  of  flow  should  be  less  than  for  an  entirely  vertical  pipe,  and 
the  diameter  therefore  greater  for  the  same  capacity,  because  in  that 


di^t«=r- 


Fig.  24. 


case  the  energy  of  the  greater  moving  mass  has  less  proportional  retard- 
ing force  due  to  gravity,  and  shocks  are  more  liable  to  occur.  Veloci- 
ties over  5'  per  second  should  not  be  allowed  in  discharge-pipes,  unless 
a  number  of  pumps  are  arranged  to  come  to  the  end  of  their  respective 
strokes  in  rotation,  so  that  the  water  in  the  pipe  will  be  continuously 
advanced.  In  the  Cornish  system  the  diameter  of  the  column-pipe  is 
frequently  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  plungers,  and,  for 
a  double  line  of  pumps,  a  separate  column  is  used  for  each  plunger, 
except  where  the  pumps  act  alternately  on  independent  rods,  in  which 
case  only  one  column  need  be  used. 

1.2.39.  Discharges  and  Inlets  of  Water-Pipes.  With  Cornish  pumps, 
particularly,  the  discharge  from  vertical  or  column-pipes  into  the 
station-tanks  should  not  be  by  means  of  ordinary  elbows  or  short 
bends,  because  the  intermittent  flow  of  the  water  will  cause  a  jar  by 
striking  against  the  side  of  the  elbow.  It  is  best  to  carry  the  pipe  up 
vertically  for  a  few  feet  above  the  outlet-pipe,  because  then  the  water 
can  rise  freely  without  shock,  and  flow  gradually  from  the  outlet.  Fig. 
24  shows  the  usual  discharge-top  for  column-pipes  of  Cornish  pumps. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  23 

It  is  generally  made  of  galvanized  iron,  for  the  sake  of  lightness  in 
handling,  and  has  a  short  piece  of  canvas  hose  attached  to  the  outlet  to 
prevent  splashing. 

1.2.40.  In  order  to  reduce  losses  due  to  resistance,  inlets  to  pipes 
should  be  flaring  (or  bell-mouthed),  if  the  velocity  be  great.  It  is  also 
economy  to  gradually  enlarge  the  outlet,  and  submerge  the  end  in  the 
discharge-reservoir,  in  case  of  high  velocity,  because  thereby  the  energy 
of  motion  is  changed  into  pressure  or  lift,  and,  in  case  of  pumping,  less 
of  the  pump  work  is  lost.  These  remarks  apply  particularly  to  low 
lifts  and  considerable  velocities,  and  where  the  additional  lift  gained  is 
an  object,  on  account  of  its  considerable  proportion  of  total  lift. 

1.2.41.  Thickness  of  Water-Pipes.  Pipes  subject  to  uniform,  constant 
water-pressure  can  be  made  much  lighter  than  those  subject  to  water- 
hammer,  and  to  varying  pressures  due  to  starting  and  arresting  the 
column  of  water,  as  in  the  discharge-pipe  of  a  single  reciprocating 
pump.  Again,  pipes  which  lie  on  the  ground,  and  which  are  not  liable 
to  be  disturbed,  can  be  made  lighter  than  those  which,  like  the  column- 
pipes  in  vertical  shafts,  are  subject  to  strains  from  being  forced  out  of 
line  by  moving  ground.  Corrosive  action  of  the  mine-water  may  also 
require  extra  thickness.  All  strains  and  destructive  influences  must 
be  taken  into  consideration,  in  designing  a  line  of  pipe,  especially  in 
mines  where  delays  are  nearly  always  expensive.  The  column-pipes 
for  underground  pumps  are  therefore  usually  made  several  times  the 
strength  that  would  be  required  for  a  pipe-line  operating  under  con- 
stant pressure.  What  applies  to  strains  in  discharge-pipes  of  pumps, 
applies,  however,  with  greater  force  to  such  power-pipes  as  are  used  for 
operating  reciprocating  hydraulic  engines,  because  here  the  shocks  are 
liable  to  be  even  more  severe  than  in  the  case  of  pumps.  The  dis- 
charge-pipes of  centrifugal  pumps  are  not  so  liable  to  water-hammer, 
and  can  therefore  be  considered  in  the  same  category  as  pipes  subject  to 
uniform  pressure. 

1.2.42.  Air-Chamhers  on  Water-Pipes.  Air-chambers  are  frequently 
used  along  a  line  of  pipe  and  at  sharp  bends  to  reduce  shocks,  such  as 
occur  when  valves  are  suddenly  closed  or  when  the  flow  in  pipes  sup- 
plying water  to  power-wheels  is  suddenly  arrested  by  obstructions  find- 
ing their  way  into  and  closing  the  nozzle. 

1.2.43.  Air-chambers  under  pressure  usually  require  some  charging 
device,  as  the  air  is  absorbed  by  the  water.  This  device  may  be  a  small 
air-compressor  operated  by  hand  at  long  intervals,  or  whenever  a  try- 
cock  or  gauge-glass  on  the  air-chamber  shows  that  the  air-space  has 
become  too  small.  Air-chambers  should  be  so  tight  that  no  air  can 
escape.  It  is  well  to  coat  them  inside  with  paint  or  asphalt,  for  heavy 
pressures,  as  the  air  is  liable  to  leak  through  the  pores  of  the  metal. 

1.2.44.  Air-chambers  on  pumps  perform  the  functions  of  equalizing 
the  flow  in  the  discharge-  or  in  the  suction-pipe,  and  of  reducing  shocks  on 
the  valves.  They  will  be  considered  more  in  detail  in  connection  with 
direct-driven  pumps.  Spring-loaded  pistons  or  plungers  are  sometimes 
used  in  place  of  air-chamibers  of  small  capacity. 

1.2.45.  Relief- Valves.  Spring-loaded  or  weighted  relief-valves  or 
pistons  are  also  used  on  pipes  liable  to  sudden  stoppage  of  the  water 
column,  so  as  to  afford  an  escape  for  the  water  under  excessive  pressure. 

3 — MD 


24 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


Weighted  valves  are  not  so  good  as  those  loaded  by  springs,  because 
they  are  slower  to  act,  on  account  of  the  greater  mass  to  be  moved. 

1.2.46.  Protection  of  Water-Pipes  against  Corrosion.  Pipes  conveying 
water,  and  particularly  those  used  in  mines  where  the  water  is  acid, 
are  either  made  of  material  to  resist  corrosion,  or,  if  the  corrosion  be 
slow,  as  is  usual,  of  greater  thickness,  so  that  they  will  stand  a  reason- 
able time  with  such  protection  as  is  afforded  by  a  coating  applied  to 
their  surface.     The  use  of  copper  pipes  in  exceptional  cases  has  been 


Fig.  25. 

previously  mentioned.  They  are  rarely  used,  on  account  of  their  cost. 
Coatings  of  asphaltum,  or  paints  prepared  from  the  resinous  part  of 
oils,  constitute  the  usual  method  of  protection.  The  asphaltum  coat- 
ings are  applied  by  dipping  the  pipes  into  a  melted  bath  of  it.  The 
pipes  should  be  thoroughly  heated  to  the  temperature  of  the  bath,  and 
the  latter  must  be  maintained  at  uniform  temperature.  Where  pipes 
have  to  be  transported  great  distances  over  rough  roads,  the  asphalt 
coatings  are  liable  to  be  injured,  and  it  is  therefore  sometimes  better,  if 
the  appliances  be  available,  to  dip  the  pipes  at  the  mine.  Fig.  25  is 
a  form  of  asphalt  bath  for  dipping  pipes.  The  illustration  shows  the 
apparatus  arranged  with  a  double-end  fireplace  under  the  pan.  By  this 
construction,  Avith  the  chimney  at  the  middle,  more  uniform  heating  is 
secured.     In  out-of-the-way  places  a  pan  is  generally  made  from  a  spare 


MINE   DEAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


25 


length  of  pipe  by  cutting  it  open  lengthwise  and  riveting  pieces  to  the 
ends. 

1.2.47.  It  requires  some  experience  and  attention  to  maintain  a 
uniform  temperature  throughout  the  bath  with  this  arrangement. 
Where  steam  is  available  the  bath  can  be  heated  very  uniformly  by 
placing  steam-pipes  in  the  bot- 
tom, in  which  case  a  wooden 
trough  will  answer  as  a  make- 
shift. 

1.2.48.  To  avoid  the  difficul- 
ties attending  the  hot  coating  of 
pipes  in  out-of-the-way  places, 
the  pipes  are  often  painted  or 
dipped  cold  with  some  of  the 
so-called  paraffine  paints.  The 
dipping  should  in  this  case  be 
done  vertically,  the  coating 
fluid  being  contained  in  a  ver- 
tical pipe  sunk  into  the  ground, 
and  only  slightly  larger  than 
the  pipe  to  be  dipped,  so  that 
a  minimum  of  surface  is  ex- 
posed to  the  atmosphere  and  for 
evaporation  of  the  very  volatile 
solvent.  In  applying  any  coat- 
ing to  pipes  they  must  first  be 
thoroughly  cleaned,  and  every 
particle  of  rust  scraped  off,  as 
otherwise  the  coating  will  not 
adhere  well  at  such  places. 
The  asphalt  coating  costs  gen- 
erally about  half  a  cent  per 
foot  per  inch  diameter  of  pipe, 
so  that  a  3"  pipe  would  cost 
li  cents  per  foot  to  dip. 

1.2.49.  Where  the  water  in 
the  mine  has  a  high  tempera- 
ture, as  in  the  Com  stock  mines, 
coatings  of  the  kind  described 
are  of  no  value  in  protecting 
the  pipe.  Galvanizing  the  pipes 
will  protect  against  some  waters. 
Some  pipe  manufacturers  use 
an  alloy  consisting  of  lead,  tin, 

and  nickel,  lead  being  the  chief  constitutent.  This  is  a  better  coating 
than  the  zinc  of  the  galvanized  pipes,  and  also  has  the  advantage  that 
the  pipes  can  be  bent  cold  without  cracking  the  coating.  To  bend  gal- 
vanized pipes  and  not  injure  the  coating,  they  should  first  be  carefully 
heated  to  a  moderate  temperature. 

1.2.50.  Iron  pipes  have  also  been  protected  inside  by  wooden  linings. 
At  the  New  Guston  Mine,  Montrose,  Colorado,  the  lining  shown  in  Fig. 
26  was  used.  The  pipe  in  this  case  should  be  asphalted  or  painted  with 
a  protective  coating  before  introducing  the  lining.  Redwood  is  the  best 
material  for  the  latter.     The  staves  should  be  cut  off  slightly  longer 


26 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


than  the  lengths  of  the  pipe,  so  as  to  secure  contact  of  the  ends  of  the 
staves  and  also  allow  for  the  packing  between  the  flanges.  The  pipes 
are  necessarily  larger  for  wooden  linings,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  main 
objection  to  their  more  common  use.  A  thin  coating  of  cement  has  in 
some  cases  been  a  good  protection. 

1.2.51.  In  the  greatest  number  of  cases  the  best  plan  will  be  to  use 
heavier  pipe  and  protect  it  as  well  as  possible  by  coatings. 

1.2.52.  Air  in  Water-Pipes.  Frequently  pumps  take  in  a  small 
amount  of  air  on  the  suction-stroke,  either  by  leakage  or  intentionally, 
in  order  to  keep  the  air-chambers  filled;  and  this  air  will  accumulate 
not  only  in  air-chambers,  but  also,  when  these  are  filled,  at  any  high 
places  along  the  discharge-pipe.  Besides  contracting  the  free  passage  of 
the  water,  such  air  is  liable  to  be  carried  along  in  a  body  when  the  over- 
pressure necessary  to  force  the  water  through  the  contracted  space  has 
become  sufficiently  great,  and   then  to  cause  water-hammer  by  rising 


Fig.  27. 


Fig.  28. 


back  through  the  descending  pipe  ;  or,  if  carried  far  enough,  by  entering 
the  next  rising  part  of  the  pipe,  where  it  is  in  a  position  still  more  dan- 
gerous to  the  pipe.  Therefore,  wherever  possible,  discharge-pipes  of 
pumps  should  rise  all  the  way  toward  the  discharge  end,  so  that  the  air 
may  be  continuously  expelled.  Where  this  is  not  possible,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  either  some  form  of  automatic  air-valve,  or  a  vertical  pipe  con- 
nected to  the  high  part  of  the  pipe-line  (the  vertical  pipe  rising  to  an 
elevation  equal  to  the  pressure-head  at  that  point).  A  small  adjustable 
opening  or  a  cock,  placed  at  the  highest  point  to  permit  the  air  to  escape 
with  a  small  waste  of  water,  would  in  some  cases  serve  the  same  purpose. 
For  all  air-escapes  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  pocket  or  chamber  at  the 
highest  part  of  the  pipe-line,  to  permit  the  air  to  accumulate,  as  it 
would,  for  the  greater  part,  run  past  any  small  opening  without  being 
diverted  into  it.  Automatic  air-valves  for  letting  accumulated  air  out 
of  pipes  must  have  sufficient  weight  in  air  to  open  the  valve  against 
the  overpressure  in  the  pipe.  They  must  also  be  so  constructed  that 
they  will  close  by  the  combined  effect  of  buoyancy  and  the  pressure  due 
to  the  rush  of  water.     Figs.  27  and  28  show  air-valves  of  this  type. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


1.2.53.  On  many  light  pipe- 
lines, the  main  office  of  air- 
valves  is  to  admit  air  to  the 
pipe  and  prevent  its  collapse 
from  atmospheric  pressure 
when  the  pipe  becomes  emp- 
tied of  water,  and  also  to  let 
out  the  air  when  the  pipe  is 
first  filled  with  water.  It  is 
evident  that  such  air-valves 
must  be  much  larger  than 
those  previously  described. 

1.2.54.  Fig.  29  shows  a 
hollow  ball  air-valve  suitable 
for  light  pressures.     The  air- 


FiG.  30. 


Fig.  31. 


valve  in  Fig.  30  has  a  wooden  ball  covered  with  rubber,  and  is,  there- 
fore, more  rigid  and  not  liable  to  be  pressed  out  of  shape  and  remain 


28  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

stuck  in  its  seat.  For  high  pressures,  the  same  make  of  valve  is  con- 
structed with  a  bell-shaped  metal  valve,  as  in  Fig.  31.  The  bell-shaped 
valve  (Fig.  31)  is  closed  by  the  rush  of  escaping  water.  In  all  the 
forms  of  ball  valves,  the  ball  is  the  valve  and  float  in  one.  They  do  not 
operate  to  let  air  out  of  the  pipe,  unless  the  pressure  falls  very  low,  as 
in  case  of  a  break  in  the  pipe  or  its  emptjang. 

1.2.55.  Besides  the  air  taken  in  by  pumps,  there  is  always  air  con- 
tained in  the  water.  It  is  not  generally  possible  to  predict  under  what 
pressure  such  air  will  be  liberated  from  the  water.  It  is,  however, 
almost  certain  to  be  liberated  if  the  pressure  falls  below  that  at  which  it 
has  entered  from  the  outside,  where  it  was  under  atmospheric  pressure. 

1.2.56.  Air  is  generally  absorbed  under  pressure  in  an  air-chamber, 
and  such  air  will  be  released  when  the  water  which  contains  it  reaches 
a  high  point  at  a  lower  pressure.  Air  will  also  be  more  readily  released 
when  the  temperature  increases,  so  that  air  may  be  looked  for  in  the 
elevated  parts  of  long  pipe-lines  which  are  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

1.2.57.  Notes  on  Steam-  and  Air-Pipes.  In  this  class  of  pipes  the 
first  care  next  to  safety  and  preventing  leaks  should  be  to  keep  as  much 
of  the  heat  in  the  steam  or  air  as  possible.  It  is  advantageous,  there- 
fore, to  locate  such  pipes  in  upcast  shaft  compartments.  In  the  case  of 
steam-  and  reheated-air-pipes  further  protection  against  radiation  must 
be  afforded  by  non-conducting  coverings.  The  latter  should  in  turn  be 
protected  from  moisture  in  order  to  be  efficient.  This  can  often  be  done 
by  wrapping  the  non-conducting  material  with  tarred  canvas.  The  pipe 
connections  should  not  be  covered,  as  leakage  from  them  might  enter 
the  non-conductor,  and  they  should  also  be  accessible  for  repacking. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  small  conical  rings  at  intervals,  to  act  as 
"umbrellas"  for  shedding  off  the  drip.  These  are  best  placed  just 
below  pipe  connections,  so  as  to  carry  off  any  leakage  drip  and  prevent 
its  soaking  into  the  non-conductor. 

1.2.58.  Steam-pipes,  and  generally  air-pipes,  should  be  provided 
with  traps  at  low  points,  for  the  purpose  of  draining  off  the  condensed 
or  entrained  water,  which  must  be  prevented  from  getting  into  the 
motor  cylinder  of  the  pump  engine,  and  which,  besides  contracting  the 
passage  at  points  where  it  accumulates,  and  thereby  causing  resistance 
to  flow,  is  also  liable  to  produce  water-hammer  and  endanger  the  pipe. 
For  this  reason,  as  soon  as  a  steam-pipe  is  shut  off  for  a  time,  the  drains 
should  be  opened  to  let  out  all  the  condensed  water. 

1.2.59.  A  break  in  a  large  steam-pipe  underground  is  a  serious  mat- 
ter. Where  such  an  accident  is  liable  to  occur,  as  in  some  shafts  in 
moving  ground,  provision  should  be  made  either  to  have  the  increased 
rush  of  steam  automatically  operate  a  self-closing  device,  or  to  connect 
a  throttle  at  the  surface,  or  valves  at  intervals,  with  a  handrope  passing 
down  the  shaft  or  other  parts  of  the  works  containing  the  pipe. 

1.2.60.  Where  steam  or  air  is  conducted  a  long  distance  to  drive  a 
reciprocating  pumping-engine  underground,  it  is  best  to  connect  the  pipe 
to  a  receiver  from  M^hich  the  engine  takes  its  air  or  steam.  The  receiver, 
from  which  the  engine  draws  intermittently,  acts  as  an  equalizer  of 
pressure  and  flow  in  the  pipe,  so  that  a  somewhat  smaller  pipe  can  be 
used  with  the  receiver  than  without  it,  because  the  flow  in  the  pipe  is 
practically  uniform. 

1.2.61.  It  is  better  to  use  first-class  gate-valves  on  steam-  and  air- 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  29 

pipes  as  well  as  on  water-pipes,  as  they  cause  less  obstruction  to  the 
flow  than  globe  valves,  which,  if  used,  should  be  so  placed  that  water 
cannot  accumulate  in  the  globe.  Tightness  against  leakage  is  important 
in  steam-  and  air-pipes,  for  economical  reasons.  In  long  pipes  the  loss 
from  leakage  is  often  enormous.  These  should,  therefore,  be  carefully- 
designed  and  erected. 

1.2.62.  Steam-  and  air-pipes  should  have  stop-valves,  not  only  at  the 
pump  engine,  but  also  at  the  boiler  or  air-receiver,  so  that  the  pipe  can 
be  repaired  without  shutting  down  the  boiler  or  exhausting  the  receiver. 
Before  connecting  steam-  or  air-pipes  to  the  engines  to  be  operated 
through  them,  they  should  be  thoroughly  blown  out  to  remove  any 
loose  scale  or  dirt  which  might  afterwards  get  into  the  engine. 

1.2.63.  The  heat  generated  by  steam-pipes  has  a  tendency  to  cause 
vapor  to  form,  which  rots  the  timbering  of  the  mine. 

1.2.64.  General  Remarks.  All  pipes  (water,  steam,  or  air)  should  be 
larger  when  their  length  is  great,  to  compensate  for  the  additional 
resistance  to  flow. 

1.2.65.  Elbows  and  bends  for  the  same  reason  should  be  formed  to  a 
large  radius,  where  economy  is  desired  and  where  space  permits. 

1.2.66.  All  shut-off  valves  and  gates  on  water-pipes  should  be  so 
arranged  that  they  can  only  be  closed  slowly;  then  the  water  flowing 
in  the  pipe  will  be  brought  to  rest  gradually  and  without  shock.  The 
longer  the  pipe  and  the  swifter  the  flow  the  more  slowly  should  the  gate 
or  valve  be  closed. 

1.2.67.  Joints  in  pipes  should  be  accessible.  In  underground  work- 
ings they  should  stand  some  crowding  out  of  line  without  leaking,  and 
should  remain  in  good  condition  for  a  long  time. 

1.2.68.  It  is  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  have  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  supporting  arrangement  for  pipes,  pumps,  and  rods  in  a  shaft 
designed  to  be  made  of  wrought-iron  and  timber,  and  the  iron  work  of 
simple  form,  so  that  breaks  can  be  quickly  repaired  by  the  mine  black- 
smith and  carpenter.  For  large  pumping-plants,  a  small  machine  shop 
is  almost  a  necessity.  Extra  flanges  for  pipes,  elbows,  and  other  parts 
should  be  kept  on  hand. 

1.2.69.  If  a  line  of  pipe  be  properly  designed  and  carefully  put  up  at 
the  start,  much  annoyance,  repair  work,  and  stoppage  of  machinery 
will  be  avoided,  and  the  expenses  of  these  in  a  year's  run  will  almost 
more  than  equal  the  increased  first  cost. 


CHAPTER   III. 

Pump-Valves. 

1.3.01.  General  Types.  Valves  for  pumps  used  in  mines  are  of 
various  types,  their  design  and  construction  depending  upon  the  condi- 
tions under  which  they  are  intended  to  operate.  They  may  be  divided 
roughly  into  hinged  valves,  commonly  called  clacks,  which  open  by 
swinging  about  an  axis  parallel  to  the  face  of  their  seat;  straight-lift 
valves,  which  rise  evenly,  and  generally  vertically,  off  their  seats;  and 
flexible  valves,  which  alter  their  form  on  opening. 


30  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

1.3.02.  The  pumps  of  the  so-called  Cornish  system  have  usually- 
hinged  or  clack  valves,  although  single-  and  double-seated  straight-lift 
valves  are  also  often  used,  particularly  in  Europe. 

1 .3.03.  In  direct-driven  pumps,  straight-lift  valves  are  almost  entirely 
used.  These  are  usually  simple,  often  practically  rigid,  rubber  disks, 
the  seat  being  in  the  form  of  a  grating.  Flexible  valves  of  rubber  or 
leather  are  suitable  only  for  very  low  lifts. 

1.3.04.  Requirements.  The 
points  to  be  aimed  at  in  the 
design  and  construction  of  a 
pump-valve  are: 

First — It  should  close 
tightly  against  its  seat, 
which  latter  is  usually  made 
so  that  it  can  be  readily 
removed  for  the  purpose  of 
truing  up  and  repairing. 
Tightness  of  valves  and 
plungers  or  buckets  is  partic- 
ularly required  in  a  pump 
which  has  to  raise  water 
partly  by  suction,  and  where 
reduced  inflow  of  water 
necessitates  slow  running  of 
the  pumps. 

Second — It  should  open 
easily,  and  remain  open  with 
a  minimum  of  overpressure 
on  its  lower  side. 

Third — It  should,  when 
open,  present  very  little  re- 
sistance to  the  flow,  and 
divert  the  current  as  little 
as  possible  from  a  straight 
course. 

Fourth — It  should  close  as 
promptly  as  possible,  imme- 
diately on  the  completion  of 
the  stroke,  or  when  the  for- 
ward motion  of  the  water 
Fig.  32.  ceases,  because,  if  the  valve 

is  still  open  during  the  com- 
mencement of  the  return-stroke,  the  water  flows  back  and  acquires  a 
velocity  which  is  suddenly  checked  with  a  blow  by  the  closing  of  the 
valve.  The  blow  is  the  more  severe  the  more  tardy  the  valve  is  in 
starting  to  close  and  the  longer  the  column  of  water  above  it. 

Fifth — It  should  be  simple  in  construction  and  not  liable  to  get  out 
of  order  easily. 

Sixth — It  should   be  readily  accessible   for   purposes  of  repair  and 
interchange. 


/Z<ncie. 


1.3.05.      Valves   and    Valve-Seats.     In   mining   pumps,   which    have 
nearly  always  to  deal  with  water  carrying  sand  in  suspension,  the  tight 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


31 


closing  of  the  valve  is,  by  this  cause,  often  prevented.  The  valve-faces, 
or  the  whole  valve,  are  usually  made  of  some  elastic  material,  so  that 
any  particles  lodging  on  the  seat  will  be  pressed  into  the  valve-face  and 
not  prevent  its  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  metal  seat,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  the  valve- 
face  were  also  of  metal.  When 
the  water  permits  it,  leather  is 
much  used  for  facing  the 
valves.  Where  the  water  is 
very  acid,  rubber  must  be  used. 
Hot  water  requires  rubber- 
composition.  This  material 
has  long  been  used  for  the 
disk-valves  of  direct-acting 
steam-pumps.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  first  used  for  the 
faces  of  clack  valves  of  Cornish 
pumps  by  Mr.  Deidesheimer 
when  Superintendent  of  the 
Hale  and  Norcross  Mine,  in 
Virginia  City,  Nevada.  The 
composition  disjis  are  usually 
I"  thick  for  clack  valves.  Fig. 
32  shows  a  hinged  clack  of  C 
common  form,  with  composi- 
tion-rubber facing.  When  the 
valves  are  large  and  the  water 
very  hot,  it  is  better  to  bore 
out  the  central  portion  of  the  A\ 
disk  in  order  to  reduce  lia- 
bility of  cracking  from  unequal 
expansion.  Hinged  valves  are 
more  liable  to  leak  than 
straight-lift  valves,  as  they 
generally  Avear  unequally  by 
striking  first  either  at  the 
edge  nearest  to  or  at  the  edge 
farthest  from  the  hinge.  When 
the  hinges  are  made  of  metal 
the  pins  should  be  very  loose, 
so  that  they  will  not  become 
clogged  and  by  their  friction 
retard  the  valve.  The  leather  ^ 
faces  of  clack  valves  are  often 
extended  to  serve  as  hinges  for 
the  valves,  as  in  Fig.  33,  which 
shows  a  double  valve  of  this 
kind. 

1.3.06.  For  low  heads  and 
small  pumps,  such  as  are  operated  by  men  or  animals,  simple  leather 
flaps,  reinforced  by  a  couple  of  washers  held  together  by  a  bolt,  are 
often  used.  Sometimes  they  are  nailed  to  one  side  of  a  bored  wooden 
block,  which  serves  as  a  seat. 


iZ  metes. 


Fig.  34 


32 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


i/Ji  lit. 


Fig.  35. 


1.3.07.  Boxwood,  maple,  beech,  and  even  pine,  have  been  used  for 
valve-seats  of  metal- faced  valves,  and  they  are  very  durable,  but  always 
leak,  as  the  grit  in  the  water  cuts  out  the  soft  part  between  the  fibers  of 

the  wood,  and  this  also  retains  particles 
of  sand,  which  cut  out  the  valve-face.  The 
small  blocks  of  wood  are  pressed  into  a 
groove  in  the  valve-seat,  the  end  of  the 
grain  being  presented  to  the  valve-face. 
Fig.  34  shows  a  hinged  valve  with  its  seat 
constructed  in  this  manner. 

1.3.08.  For  valves  with  elastic  faces, 
brass  seats,  or  seats  faced  with  brass,  are 
advisable  with  acid  water.  The  last  Cornish 
pumps  operated  on  the  Comstock  had  brass- 
faced  valve-seats,  constructed  as  shown  in 
Fig.  32. 

1.3.09.  Fig.  35  is  a  straight-lift  valve  like 
those  used  in  direct-acting  pumps.  It  is 
simply  a  thick  rubber  disk,  supported,  when 
closed,  on  a  metal  grating  which  forms  the 
seat.  For  higher  pressures  the  openings 
in  the  grating  must  be  made  very  small, 
and  rubber-composition  used  for  the  valve. 
Such  valves  have  been  used  for  pressures 
of  500  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  but  for  such 
pressures  the  valves  are  usually  held  in 
brass  cages,  as  in   Fig.  36.      Straight-lift 

valves  are  also  made         >, 

of  metal,with  leather 

or  rubber  facing,as  in 

Fig.  37. 

1.3.10.   The  guides 

of  straight-lift  valves 

must  be  arranged  so 

that  they  will  not 
cause  friction  or  binding,  and  thereby 
retard  the  action  of  the  valve.  The 
width  of  the  bearing  of  the  valve  on 
its  seat  must  be  such  that  the  material 
will  not  be  destroyed  too  rapidly  by 
the  repeated  and  more  or  less  heavy 
blows  on  the  closing  of  the  valve.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  bearings  should 
not  be  too  wide,  otherwise  greater 
overpressure  will  be  required  below 
the  valve  to  open  it,  This  overpres- 
sure is,  however,  not  greater  in  the 
ratio  of  the  areas  exposed  to  pressures 
above  and  below  the  valve,  because 
there  is  always  a  film  of  water  be- 
tween the  valve-face  and  its  seat,  through  which  the  pressure  is  trans- 
mitted, and  to  a  considerable  extent  balanced. 

1.3.11.     Often  the  water  of  a  mine  is  corrosive  in  its  action,  or  con- 


FiG.  36. 


UX  I'nrAes 


Fig.  37. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


33 


tains  much  gritty  material  which  cuts  the  valve-seats  and  valve-faces, 
so  that  great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  finding  a  proper  material  or 
construction  by  which  the  valves  can  be  kept  tight. 

1.8.12.  Flexible  valves  are  generally  made  of  rubber.  They  are  suit- 
able only  for  moderate  lifts.  Round  and  rectangular  forms  exist.  Their 
seats  form  a  grating,  which  supports  the  rubber  at  many  points.  Fig. 
38  illustrates  a  type  of  round  flexible  valve,  such  as  is  used  for  air- 
pumps  of  steam  engines.  The  seats  of  all  valves  having  flexible  faces 
must  have  all  the  sharp  corners  of  the  edges  of  the  seat  rounded  off,  so 


|/^  iitc/ifs. 


Fig.  38. 


as  not  to  cut  the  flexible  material.  Flexible  valves  open  with  very 
little  overpressure  beneath  them,  because  the  least  excess  of  pressure 
bulges  up  the  exposed  part  of  the  valve  and  lifts  it  a  very  little  at  the 
inner  edge  of  the  seat,  where  the  water  enters,  and  thus  communicates 
the  pressure  to  a  greater  area,  which  is  again  increased,  and  the  valve 
thereby  rapidly  peeled  off  its  seat. 

1.3.13.  Area  and  Lift  of  Valves.  Quick,  easy  opening  and  closing, 
with  a  minimum  of  obstruction  to  the  current  passing  the  valve,  were 
mentioned  before  as  requisites  for  all  pump-valves.  As  it  is  generally 
desirable  (for  reasons  stated  farther  on)  to  keep  the  lift  of  valves  as 
small  as  possible,  it  is  necessary  to  make  them  of  a  correspondingly 
larger  area,  so  as  to  keep  down  the  velocity  and  consequent  resistance 
to  the  flow  past  the  valve.  Such  enlargement  of  area  must,  however, 
be  kept  within  limits,  as  the  leakage  is  liable  to  be  greater  with  larger 
valves   when   closed,  and    also  because   the   valve,  during   its   closing 


34 


MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC. 


stroke,  permits  some  water  to  flow  back,  so  that  the  decrease  of  this 
back-flow  due  to  the  lower  lift  and  shorter  time  of  closing  is  counter- 
acted more  or  less  by  an  increase  due  to  the  greater  circumference 
exposed  to  back-flow.  The  higher  the  piston-speed  of  a  pump,  the 
greater  should  be  the  area  of  the  valves,  in  order  to  insure  small  resist- 
ance as  well  as  quick  closing.  Suction-valves  should  be  of  ample  area 
in  order  to  reduce  the  resistance,  particularly  where  the  suction-lift  is 
considerable;  also  in  high  altitudes  and  where  the  water  is  warm. 

1.3.14.  In  order  to  keep  the  diameter  and  also  the  lift  of  valves 
within  bounds,  straight-lift  valves  are  quite  often  constructed  with 
double  or  multiple  seats,  as  in  Figs.  39  and  40,  the  valves  and  seats 
being  annular  with  inner  and  outer  discharge-edges. 


/Z.inrAer, 


Fig,  40. 


1.3.15.  Where  valves  are  placed  in  buckets,  as  in  the  ordinary  lift 
and  jackhead  pumps,  the  valves  can  naturally  not  be  made  of  the 
requisite  area,  and  the  resistance  introduced  by  the  contraction  acts  to 
reduce  the  speed  at  which  such  pumps  may  be  operated.  This  defect  is, 
however,  to  a  great  extent  counteracted  by  the  uniform  direction  in 
which  the  water  moves,  as  it  is  not  reversed  in  its  course  in  this  class 
of  pumps.  Such  valved  buckets  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on 
Cornish  sinking-pumps.     (See  2.3.27.) 

1.3.16.  Action  of  Valves.  Both  suction-  and  discharge-valves  should 
open  and  close  as  nearly  as  possible  coincident  with  the  ends  of  the 
pump-stroke.  Tardy  closing  produces  back-flow  and  increased  inten- 
sity of  shock.  Tardy  opening  of  the  suction-valves  is  due  to  their  ex- 
cessive resistance,  and  indicates  that  there  is  liability  of  a  reduced  fill 
of  the  pump  for  the  suction-stroke,  and  a  shock  when  the  plunger  or 
piston  strikes  the  water  on  the  return-stroke.  Promptness  of  closing  is 
particularly  desirable  for  the  discharge-valves  where  the  head  is  great. 
A  slightly  reduced  lift  and  increased  resistance  due  to  it  in  the  discharge- 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


35 


valve  is  not  so  great  a  detriment.  Promptness  of  closing  can  be  secured 
by  making  the  valves  heavy,  or  by  using  the  pressure  of  springs.  Stops 
must  be  used  in  all  cases  to  keep  the  valve-lift  between  limits,  and  it  is 
well  to  make  these  so  that  the  extreme  lift  can  be  adjusted  to  suit  the 
best  working  of  the  pump.  Clack  valves  for  Cornish  plunger  pumps, 
Fig.  34,  are  usually  made  heavy,  of  cast-iron,  and  the  stops  are  cast  on 
the  clack-chamber  doors.  Sometimes  spring-stops,  which  are  compressed 
by  the  valve  when  the  overpressure  beneath  holds  it  open,  are  used. 
Such  springs  also  serve  to  accelerate  the  closing  of  the  valve  at  that 
point  where  its  weight  is  least  effective.  Fig.  41  shows  such  an  arrange- 
ment, which  was  designed  by  Mr.  S.  N.  Knight,  of  Sutter  Creek.  Cal. 
The  closing  of  the  rubber  disk-valves  commonly  used  in  direct-acting 
steam-pumps  is  accelerated  by  springs.     (Fig.  35.) 

1.3.17.     Number  of  Beats  of  Valves.     The  admissible  number  of  beats 
per  minute  of  a  valve,  and  therefore  the  number  of  strokes  of  the  pump, 


depends  upon  many  conditions.  Among  these  are:  design,  size,  weight, 
and  lift  of  the  valve;  length  of  the  pump-stroke;  velocity  of  flow  at 
each  part  of  the  stroke;  the  head  pumped  against ;  length  of  the  dis- 
charge-pipe; the  height  of  suction-lift;  and  also  whether  a  single  pump 
does  the  work,  or  whether  two  or  more,  operating  in  rotation,  force  the 
water  into  the  same  pipe.  All  these  conditions  influence  the  motion  of 
the  valves  to  such  an  extent  that  they  must  all  be  considered  and  cal- 
culated or  otherwise  determined  as  far  as  possible,  in  order  to  decide  at 
what  rate  a  pump  can  be  allowed  to  run  under  different  conditions. 

1.3.18.  Mechanically  Actuated  Valves.  A  modern  method  of  securing 
perfect  action  of  pump-valves  is  to  aid  their  movements  by  mechanical 
means,  as  in  the  pump  valve-gear  of  Prof.  Riedler,  a  form  of  which  is 
shown  in  Fig.  42.  The  valve  is  here  constructed  so  as  to  open  as  freely 
as  possible  without  the  assistance  of  mechanism.  A  little  before  the 
time  when  the  valve  should  close  entirely,  and  when  the  velocity  of  flow 
is  already  considerably  reduced,  so  that  a  partial  closing  will  offer  no 
appreciable  obstruction,  a  lever  or  rod  operated  by  valve-gear  from  the 


36 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


V 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


crank-shaft  moves  toward  and  closes  the  valve;  the  arm  then  recedes, 
and  removes  all  pressure  from  the  valve  before  the  time  for  its  opening 
arrives.  With  non-rotative  pump-engines  this  arrangement  is  not  appli- 
cable, but  it  is  used  successfully 
for  steam-pumps  driven  by  ro- 
tative engines.  Riedler  has 
constructed  his  pump  valve- 
gear  in  various  ways;  some  are 
operated  by  cams,  others  by 
eccentrics;  in  some  the  closing 
levers  are  used  to  remove  the 
pressure  of  a  spring  from  the 
back  of  the  valve  before  its  time 
of  opening;  in  others  the  lever 
is  armed  with  a  spring;  and  still 
in  other  constructions  a  small 
hydraulic  plunger  is  used  in- 
stead of  a  spring. 

1.3.19.  Inclined  Valves.  Clack 
valves  with  inclined  seats,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  41  and  43,  permit 

a     more    direct    path    for    the  ^ .—    >i    ^^  w    ^m    jJl^^"""^''- 

water  than  the   type  shown  in  Fig.  43. 

Figs.    32,   33,   and    34;   but   in 

vertical  pumps  the  angle  which  the  valve  makes  with  a  vertical  line 
is  less  for  the  wide-open  position  than  for  the  valves  with  horizontal 
seats;  there  is  therefore  less  acceleration,  tending  to  close  the  valve  by 

its  own  weight,  and  the 
use  of  a  spring  at  the  back 
of  the  valve  is  indicated. 
When  used  in  inclined  or 
horizontal  pumps,  having 
the  clack-chambers  placed 
parallel  to  the  pump,  a 
single  valve,  inclined  to 
the  axis   of   the   chamber 


so  as   to   be 
horizontal, 


well. 


more  nearly 

works      very 

even      without      a 


}"«  I-  ^^^  .,-  J^'^"''"- 


spring,  because  the  wanght- 
acceleration  tending  to 
close  the  valve  is  greatest 
at  its  wide-open  position. 
(Fig.  44.)  Particles  are 
not  so  liable  to  lodge  on 
inclined  valve-seats. 


Fig.  44. 


1.3.20.  Multiple  Valves. 
Several  valves  in  a  set  are 
frequently  used.  This  is  the  usual  method  m  large  direct-acting  steam- 
pumps.  In  the  Cornish  system  double  valves,  as  in  Figs.  33, 41,  and  45, 
are  often  employed.  The  use  of  a  number  of  smaller  valves,  instead  of 
one  large  one,  is  generally  necessary  for  high  pressures.    Multiple  valves 


38 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


also  present  the  opportunity  of  making  the  weight,  lift,  or  spring-tension 
of  the  different  valves  unequal,  so  that  they  will  seat  successively  and 
not  all  together,  thereby  causing  a  more  gradual  arrest  of  the  water- 
column  as  it  falls  back,  and  thus  more  efficiently  reducing  the  chance 
for  blows  than  could  be  done  by  a  single  valve,  unless  the  single  valve 
is  operated  by  mechanism,  as  in  Riedler's  construction.  Fig.  46  shows 
a  multiple  valve  of  a  type  much  used  for  waterworks  pumps.     Fig.  47 


fZ  tiiehej 


Fig.  45. 


Fig.  46. 


is  a  form  of  valve-support  which  permits  of  getting  a  large  number  of 
valves  into  a  comparatively  small  valve-chamber. 

1.3.21.  Spring-Loaded  Valves.  If  a  valve  be  made  heavy  in  order  to 
assist  in  its  rapid  closing,  its  resistance  to  opening  is  increased,  and  such 
increase  is  twofold:  first,  the  heavier  valve  must  be  balanced  by  a  greater 
force  beneath  it;  and,  second,  there  must  be  an  additional  increase  of 
force  in  order  to  move  the  greater  mass  of  the  valve  into  its  full-open 
position  in  the  same  time  that  a  lighter  one  would  be  moved.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  spring,  the  mean  tension  of  which  is  equal  to  the 
increased  weight  for  which  it  is  substituted,  is  used,  there  will  be  less 
resistance  to  moving  the  valve  to  its  full-open  position,  and  the  valve 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


39 


4 — MD 


Fig.  47. 


/Z  inches 


40  MINE   DRAINAGE     PUMPS,    ETC. 

will  also  close  more  rapidly  than  by  means  of  an  equivalent  weight, 
because,  in  the  latter  case,  the  increased  weight  or  force  has  also  to  move 
an  increased  mass,  while  the  same  force  exerted  by  a  spring  has  less 
mass  to  move,  and  will,  therefore,  move  it  the  same  distance  in  less 
time.  This  argument  shows  that  it  is  better  to  make  the  valve  as  light 
as  is  compatible  with  strength,  and  to  accelerate  closing  by  means  of 
proper  springs.  The  springs  should  be  made  adjustable  in  tension,  and, 
to  secure  easy  opening  of  the  valve,  they  should  not  bear  appreciably 
on  the  latter  when  closed.  By  using  a  number  of  smaller  valves  equiv- 
alent to  one  larger  one,  their  aggregate  mass  can  be  less  than  that  of  the 
single  one,  because  their  thickness  can  be  reduced  with  their  area.  A 
multiplicity  of  valves  favors  the  application  of  springs,  because  these 
can  be  made  light  for  small  valves.  Spring  brass  is  the  proper  material 
for  valve-springs,  as  steel  would  soon  rust  away  and  is  also  more  liable  to 
break  from  shocks.  Springs  are  very  extensively  used  for  the  rubber 
disk- valves  of  direct-acting  pumps  (Fig.  35).  For  pumps  of  the  Cornish 
system,  their  application  has  been  limited,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why,  if  properly  constructed,  their  use  should  not  be  advantageous. 

1.3.22.  Valve-Chambers  and  Valve-Seat  Fastenings.  The  seats  of 
valves  are  usually  separate  from  the  valve-housings,  or  clack-chambers, 
and  are  held  in  place  either  by  bolts,  or  simply  by  their  own  weight 
aided  by  the  friction  of  a  conical  recess  into  which  they  are  forced  by 
the  pressure  of  the  water  upon  the  valve  when  closed.  For  small 
valves,  the  seats  are  frequently  secured  by  screwing  them  into  the  body 
of  the  chamber.  Fig.  37  shows  a  single  disk-valve  with  its  seat  secured 
by  a  central  bolt.  The  suction-valves  of  Cornish  lift  pumps  are  now, 
less  often  than  formerly,  arranged  for  drawing  up  through  the  column- 
pipe.  This  arrangement  is  advantageous  only  where  a  shallow  mine, 
involving  the  use  of  only  a  single  lift,  is  drowned  out,  or  where  a  deep 
mine  is  liable  to  be  flooded  up  to,  but  not  above,  the  level  of  the  next 
higher  set  of  pumps. 

1.3.23.  The  clack  or  valve-seats  of  Cornish  pumps  are  usually  formed 
with  a  tapering  ring  or  spigot,  which  fits  into  a  boring  of  the  clack- 
chamber.  The  spigot  is  wrapped  with  canvas,  or  similar  material, 
before  putting  in  place.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  seat  may  jam  so  tight, 
or  rust  fast  in  the  conical  bore,  that  it  cannot  be  got  out  without  risk 
of  breaking.  The  projecting  part  of  the  seat  should  have  lugs  cast  on 
at  opposite  sides  so  that  a  bar  can  be  inserted  under  them,  and  the  seat 
pried  up.  Fig.  48  shows  a  common  form  of  clack-seat  in  its  chamber. 
For  inclined  pumps  having  also  inclined  clack-chambers,  it  is  well  to 
have  some  additional  bolt-fastening  for  the  valve-seat,  as  the  latter  has 
little  tendency  to  fall  back  into  its  place,  if  by  accident  forced  there- 
from. 

1.3.24.  In  order  to  gain  access  to  the  valves  of  pumps,  the  chambers 
are  provided  with  doors  or  covers  held  in  place  by  bolts.  Fig.  48  is  the 
clack-chamber  of  a  Cornish  plunger  pump;  the  bolts  for  securing  the 
door  are  hinged  to  the  chamber-casting  by  an  eye  on  one  end,  and  fit 
into  slits  extending  from  the  edge  of  the  flanges.  This  arrangement 
has  the  advantage  that  the  cover  can  be  removed  very  rapidly  by  simply 
slacking  the  nuts  suflaciently  to  permit  the  swinging  aside  of  the  bolts, 
and  also  that  the  nuts  cannot  be  lost  easily,  or  fall  down  the  shaft,  to 
the  peril  of  men  working  below.     In  a  shaft  there  should  be  the  fewest 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


41 


possible  number  of   loose  pieces  or  tools  placed  where  there  may  be 
danger  of  their  falling. 

1.3.25.  The  covers  of  large  valve-chambers  are  heavy,  and  the  doors 
must  be  cast  with  lugs,  and  have  a  ring  by  which  to  lift  them,  and  they 
should  have  starting-bolts  to  break  the  joint  when  it  is  necessary  to  take 
them  off. 

1.3.26.  In  order  to  compensate,  in  part,  for  the  weakness  of  the 
chamber,  due  to  having  an  opening  in  one  side,  it  is  well  to  have  the 


C 

-±UL 

c 


p 


Fig.  48. 


covers  formed  with  a  projecting  ledge  at  the  two  vertical  edges,  which 
are  fitted  over  the  outer  edges  of  the  flange  on  the  chamber,  and  serve 
to  bind  them  together,  as  at  a,  Fig.  48.  The  doors  of  valve-chambers 
should  be  placed  so  that  they  are  readily  accessible,  as  the  valves  usuallv 
require  frequent  changing  or  repairs.  Besides  the  large,  heavy  door  for 
the  removal  of  the  valves,  it  is  sometimes  an  advantage  to  have  another 
small  door  on  the  side  or  in  the  main  door,  which  can  be  quicklv 
removed,  and  which  is  just  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  inspection 
when  anything  is  wrong  with  the  valve,  such  as  chips  or  gravel  on  the 
seat,  which  can  be  removed  by  the  hand. 


42  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

1.3.27.  In  horizontal  pumps  the  valve-chamber  covers  are  often  on 
top,  and  admit  of  easy  access  to  the  valves. 

1.3.28.  Stop-Valves.  In  order  to  get  at  the  discharge-valves  of 
pumps,  without  draining  the  entire  column-pipe  above,  a  gate-valve  is 
sometimes  placed  above  the  valve-chamber,  which  can  be  closed  when 
it  is  necessary  to  get  at  the  discharge-valve.  The  ordinary  gate-valves 
in  the  market  are  generally  of  too  light  construction  to  bear  the  weight 
of  the  column-pipe,  and  also  the  lateral  strains  that  are  liable  to  be 
thrown  on  their  casings.  Special,  heavy  valves  should  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  A  very  good  plan  with  Cornish  pumps  is  to  put  above  the 
discharge-clack  an  additional  clack,  which  remains  open  and  inoper- 
ative during  the  working  of  the  pump,  and  swings  entirely  out  of  the 
way  so  as  not  to  obstruct  the  flow.  The  valve  must  be  arranged  so  that 
it  can  be  closed  by  a  handle  from  the  outside,  which  is  done  without  a 
shock  when  the  pump  is  stopped.  If  the  water  be  let  out  of  the  column- 
pipe,  the  pump-work  will  usually  be  out  of  balance  on  starting  up  again 
until  the  column-pipe  is  filled. 

1.3.29.  Spare  Gear.  In  order  to  avoid  delays,  there  should  always 
be  a  number  of  valves  and  seats  on  hand,  and  ready  to  immediately 
replace  others  taken  out.  The  number  of  parts  necessary  to  be  kept  on 
hand  can  be  reduced  by  having  the  valves,  or  at  least  such  parts  that 
cannot  be  made  or  repaired  at  the  mine,  of  the  same  pattern  so  that 
they  will  be  interchangeable. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  43 


SECTION  II. 
PUMP  SYSTEMS  OPERATED  BY  RODS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
General  Description  of  System. 

2.1.01.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  other  more  recently  developed 
methods  of  transmitting  power  to  operate  pumps  underground,  such  as 
direct  steam,  compressed  air,  water  pressure,  and,  to  some  extent, 
electricity,  are  in  most  instances,  particularly  for  great  depths,  more 
suitable  and  economical,  the  method  of  operating  pumps  in  shafts  by 
means  of  rods  has  still  a  considerable  range  of  application  for  moderate 
depths. 

2.1.02.  The  name  "Cornish  System"  applies  to  an  arrangement 
whereby  a  rod  simultaneously  operates  a  series  of  pumps,  all  of  which 
are  plungers,  except  the  lowest,  which  is  a  lift  pump.  Each  pump 
delivers  the  Avater  into  a  tank,  from  which  the  next  higher  pump  draws 
its  supply.  This  system  is  said  to  have  been  first  applied  in  1801  by 
Captain  Lean  at  one  of  the  mines  of  Cornwall.  The  reason  for  using 
plungers  is,  that  these,  where  they  are  not  required  to  operate  under 
water,  can  run  uninterruptedly  for  a  much  longer  time  than  lift  pumps. 
Where  submersion  is  liable  to  occur  it  requires  a  pump  which  can  be 
operated  and  repaired  under  such  conditions,  and  for  that  reason  the 
older  lift  pump  was  retained  as  the  lowest  of  the  series.  The  kind  of 
power  used  to  operate  the  rods  may  be  either  steam  or  water.  Origi- 
nally the  only  method  of  working  the  rod  was  by  means  of  a  single- 
cylinder,  single-acting  engine,  which  lifted  the  rod  and  the  water  in  the 
lift  pump,  and  then  allowed  the  rod  to  sink  back,  its  weight  driving 
down  the  plungers.  The  single  cylinder  of  this  Cornish  engine  did  not 
admit  of  an  economical  degree  of  expansion  of  the  steam,  because  the 
excess  of  pressure  at  the  beginning  of  the  up-stroke  produced  excessive 
strains  in  the  pumprod  and  effected  too  great  an  acceleration  of  it  and 
its  attachments,  causing  shocks  and  frequent  breakdowns.  The  intro- 
duction of  compound,  or  Wolf,  engines  secured  a  higher  and  more 
economical  rate  of  expansion  with  less  variation  in  the  extremes  of 
pressure.  These  engines  were,  however,  still  single-acting,  and  there- 
fore of  large  size  in  proportion  to  the  work.  Double-acting,  non-rota- 
tive engines  were  introduced  about  the  latter  part  of  the  "  sixties." 
Later,  double-acting,  rotative  engines,  with  crank  and  flywheel,  came 
into  use.  A  defect  of  this  kind  of  direct-coupled,  rotative  engine  is, 
that  it  cannot  be  operated  at  very  slow  speed,  as  it  may  then  stop  on 
the  center,  and  it  is  therefore  not  suitable  for  the  same  variability  of 
pump-work  as  the  non-rotative  engine,  which  operates  for  any  length  of 
pause  between  the  strokes.  Kley,  of  Bonn,  remedies  this  defect  of 
ordinary  rotative  engines  by  arranging  the  valve-gear  so  that  the  engines 
can  rotate  in  either  direction,  and  therefore  they  can  be  reversed  auto- 


44  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

iiiatically  before  the  end  of  stroke  for  slow  speed,  and  in  that  case  be 
operated  similarly  to  non-rotative  engines,  while  at  a  greater  speed  they 
turn  the  centers  and  rotate  the  crank  in  one  direction.  A  recent 
arrangement  of  rotative  pumping-engine  is  that  of  Regnier,  in  which 
the  dead  points  are  overcome  by  a  smaller  engine  coupled  to  a  crank  at 
right  angles  to  the  main  crank.  These  engines  require  only  a  com- 
paratively light  flywheel.  They  are,  at  present,  the  most  perfect 
rotative  engines  for  working  pumps  through  rods,  and  a  number  of  them 
are  operating  at  mines  in  Germany. 

2.1.03.  Ordinary  steam  engines,  geared  to  a  crank  operating  the 
pumprod  through  a  bob  or  beam,  form  one  of  the  oldest  applications  of 
the  rotative  principle,  and  are  much  used  on  this  coast.  Probably  the 
largest  examples  of  this  type  are  found  on  the  Comstock.  The  geared 
arrangement  is  also  the  one  suited  to  driving  Cornish  pumps  by  water- 
Avheels.  Reciprocating  hydraulic-pressure  engines  began  to  be  used  for 
operating  pumps  about  the  middle  of  last  century.  Many  examples  of 
this  class  of  engines  exist  in  German}'-,  France,  and  England.  On  this 
coast,  Mr.  S.  N,  Knight,  of  Sutter  Creek,  Amador  County,  has  been 
prominent  in  introducing  a  type  of  his  own  design. 

2.1.04.  In  all  double-acting  arrangements  for  operating  Cornish 
pumps  by  engines  or  other  motors,  part  of  the  work  is  done  on  the  up- 
and  part  on  the  down-stroke.  For  rotative  engines  and  motors  the  work 
on  the  up-  and  down-stroke  should  be  approximately  equal.  On  the 
down-stroke  the  main  work  of  pumping  is  accomplished  by  the  plungers, 
while  on  the  up-stroke  the  weight  of  the  pumprod  is  lifted  with  the 
water  in  the  lift-pump  column.  It  is  evident,  since  the  weight  of  the 
rod  aids  the  plungers  in  lifting  their  water,  that,  if  the  weight  of  the 
pumprods,  plus  half  the  total  pressure  on  the  lift-pump-bucket,  equals 
half  the  total  pressure  on  all  the  plungers,  the  work  on  both  strokes 
will  be  equal.  Unless  balance-bobs  are  used,  this  leads  to  a  very  light 
pumprod,  which,  in  order  to  be  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  compression, 
must  be  made  of  iron  girders,  channels,  or  tubes.  Such  pumprods  are 
expensive,  and  the  connection  of  the  sections  presents  difficulties  and 
requires  first-class  workmanship.  Pumprods  are  usually  made  of  wood 
in  this  country,  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  excellent  timber.  In 
order  to  secure  proper  strength,  wooden  rods  require  to  be  heavier  than 
iron  ones,  for  which  reason  they  have  to  be  equipped  with  balance-bobs, 
so  as  to  equalize  the  resistance  on  the  up-  and  down-strokes.  Wooden 
rods,  with  balance-bobs,  are  almost  invariably  used  where  the  Cornish 
system  is  applied  on  this  coast.  The  maximum  stroke  used  with 
Cornish  pumps  is  about  10'. 

2.1.05.  A  system  allied  to  the  pumprod  system  (inasmuch  as  the 
same  kind  of  engines  are  used  as  motors,  and  the  water  raised  by  suc- 
cessive lifts)  is  that  in  which  the  column-pipe  is  made  to  serve  as  the 
pumprod,  thereby  saving  some  room  in  the  shaft. 

2.1.06.  Owing  to  the  weight  of  the  pumprod,  which  has  to  be 
balanced,  there  is  little  virtue  in  double-acting  Cornish  pumps.  A 
double-acting  pump  might  be  warranted  only  where  a  large  quantity 
of  water  is  to  be  raised  from  a  depth  of  a  few  hundred  feet. 

2.1.07.  Most  of  the  proposed  double-acting  constructions  have  oppo- 
site plungers,  one  stuffing-box  being  a  hanging  one,  and  therefore 
exposed  to  all  the  sand  and  mud  contained  in  the  water.  The  only 
double-acting  pumprod  system  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  has 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  45 

any  merit,  and  which  also  has  found  some  application  in  Europe,  is 
the  Rittinger  telescope-pump  system,  in  which  the  column-pipe,  like 
that  mentioned  in  2.1.05,  serves  the  purpose  of  the  pumprod.  Such 
systems  are,  however,  too  complicated,  and  the  pumps  too  inaccessible 
for  our  purposes  here,  and  the  writer  knows  of  no  case  of  their  appli- 
cation. 

2.1.08.  The  pumprod  system  has  been  used  for  depths  of  over  3,000', 
but  it  is  unquestionably  unsuited  for  economical  work  under  such 
extreme  conditions.  On  account  of  the  elasticity  of  the  pumprod,  the 
lower  pumps  do  not  get  their  full  stroke,  and  their  action  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke  becomes  uncertain. 


CHAPTER  11. 
Pumprods. 

2.2.01.  General  Arrangement.  The  pumprods  which  serve  to  transmit 
motion  from  the  engine  or  other  motor  to  pumps  of  the  Cornish  system, 
w^ere  formerly  sometimes  several  thousand  feet  long.  Owing  to  the 
elasticity  of  the  rods,  referred  to  at  the  conclusion  of  the  preceding 
chapter,  and  their  great  mass,  both  of  which  affect  the  working  of  the 
pumps  and  produce  severe  strains  and  frequent  breakages  at  speeds  that 
would  be  admissible  with  shorter  rods,  the  working-speed  of  such  long 
rods  must  be  kept  very  low,  and  the  pumps  and  entire  working-plant 
must  be  larger  for  the  same  capacity.*  The  Cornish  system  should 
properly,  therefore,  not  be  applied  for  such  depths,  particularly  as  other 
methods  of  transmission  are  to-day  available  to  give  equal  commercial 
efficiency. 

2.2.02.  Pumprods  are  composed  of  pieces  or  sections  joined  at  their 
ends  by  very  strong  connections,  which  must  be  capable  of  bearing  the 
continual  reversal  of  heavy  strains  to  which  they  are  subject.  The  rods 
must  be  securely  guided  in  the  direction  of  their  motion  in  the  shaft  or 
incline.  As  constructed  in  this  country,  they  generally  require  to  be 
arranged  with  counterweights  to  balance  the  excess  of  weight  over  that 
required  to  equalize  the  work  on  the  up-  and  down-strokes.  The  plung- 
ers and  sinking-pump  rods  are  usually  attached  to  the  side  of  the  main 
rod.  In  Europe,  the  main  rod  is  frequently  forked  or  made  double  to 
enable  a  single  line  of  plungers  to  be  placed  in  the  axis  of  the  rod. 

2.2.03.  Even  where  the  sinking  of  a  shaft  has  been  completed,  the 
sinking-pump  often  remains  in  place,  no  pump-station  being  put  in  at 
the  bottom,  where  it  might  be  floo,ded. 

2.2.04.  In  order  to  enable  sinking  to  be  carried  on  easily,  the  sink- 
ing-pump rods  must  be  capable  of  being  readily  disconnected  and 
hauled  up  with  the  bucket  of  the  pump.  For  this  reason  the  sinking- 
rod  is  usually  not  in  line  with  the  main  rod,  but  offset  to  one  side  and 
clamped  to  it,  or  to  an  intermediate  distance-piece,  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  can  be  let  down  to  suit  the  increasing  depth,  f 


*At  the  Combination  Shaft,  Virginia  City,  Nevada,  a  vertical  pumprod,  15"  square  and 
over  3,000'  feet  long,  operated  a  double  line  of  15"  plunger  pumps,  at  a  maximum  of  6)4 
strokes  per  minute,  the  stroke  being  about  7'  6"  at  the  surface. 

t  When  Cornish  pumps  were  still  in  operation  on  the  Comstock,  the  sinking  lift-pump 
was  discarded  in  several  mines  and  a  direct-acting  steam  sinking-pump  of  the  Blake, 
Knowles,  or  Dow  type  was  employed. 


46  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

2.2.05.  Material  of  Rods.  Pumprods  are  made  either  of  iron  or 
wood.  The  sections  of  the  latter  are  usually  connected  by  iron  strap- 
ping-plates, though  wooden  plates  are  also  used.  Owing  to  the  excellent 
quality  of  the  timber,  and  the  long  pieces  of  it  which  can  be  obtained 
free  from  blemishes,  wooden  main  pumprods  are  almost  exclusively 
used  on  this  coast.  Iron  pumprods  of  hollow  rectangular  cross-section, 
as  in  Fig.  49,  are  lighter  than  the  wooden  ones,  and  if  properly  designed 
and  constructed,  no  balance-bobs  or  other  counterbalancing  devices 
will  be  required  with  them,  so  that  the  extra  cost  of  such  a  rod  might 
be  compensated  for  by  the  saving  in  cost  of  balance-bobs  and  their 

stations.     The  moving  mass  being  much  reduced, 

not  only  by  the  lesser  weight  of  rod,  but  also  by 

the  absence  of  counterweights,  higher  speeds  and 

greater  depths  are  admissible  by  the  use  of  iron 

rods.     Tubular  iron  rods  can  be  made  still  lighter 

than  those  composed  of  I-beams. 

o  g  g         2.2.06.    Iron  rods  require  very  careful  workman- 

k  ■  ■  >■  ■jcj^^'^'  '*  ship,  especially  in  the  connections,  which  have  to 

Fig.  49.  be  very  strong   and  rigid.     Moreover,    the   exact 

length   of    pumprod   sections   cannot    always    be 

determined  long  in  advance,  and  while  wooden  rod  sections  have  the 

advantage   that    they  can   be    cut  to    length  conveniently,  iron    rods 

require  careful  and  costly  machinist  work  to  effect  such  changes. 

2.2.07.  The  only  instance  of  a  hollow  iron  main  pumprod  known  to 
the  writer  on  this  coast  is  one  at  the  Grand  Central  Mine  (Arizona). 
This  rod  gave  out  in  a  very  short  time  by  becoming  loose  in  the  joints. 
Sinking-rods  of  iron,  of  solid  section,  are,  however,  extensively  used, 
because,  being  only  subjected  to  tension,  they  are  better  adapted  to  lift- 
pump  work  than  wooden  rods.  They  are  also  cheaper,  consisting 
simply  of  solid  rods  with  ends  suitable  for  connecting  by  keys  or  other 
fastenings. 

2.2.08.  Wooden  pumprods  are  usually  of  square  section,  except 
where  two  connected  rods  work  a  single  line  of  plungers  between  them, 
in  which  case  they  are  oblong  in  section.  The  so-called  Oregon  pine 
(Douglas  fir,  or  Pseudotsuga  Douglasii)  is  the  best  material  for  wooden 
pumprods. 

2.2.09.  Data  relating  to  this  wood  were  published  in  the  10th  Census 
of  the  United  States  Government,  of  1880,  at  Washington,  containing 
the  Report  on  the  Forest  Trees  of  North  America,  by  Charles  A.  Sar- 
gent, Professor  of  Agriculture  at  Harvard  College;  pages  255,  259,  264, 
410,  412,  476,  478.*  Experiments  for  determining  the  tensile,  compres- 
sive, and  shearing  strength  of  Oregon  pine  were  also  made  by  Arthur 
Brown  for  the  Southern  Pacific  Co.,  by  W.  A.  Grondahl  for  the  Oregon 
&  California  Railroad  Co.,  and  by  Prof.  F.  Soule,  of  the  State  Univer- 
sity, Berkeley,  Cal. 

2.2.10.  All  the  experiments  confirm  the  excellent  qualities  of  the 
timber,  but  they  also  show  that  its  resistance  to  longitudinal  shear,  or 
sliding  of  the  fibers  upon  each  other,  is  very  slight.  This  fact  must  be 
taken  account  of  in  constructions,  and  such  connections  as  hook-splices, 
and  similar  fastenings  depending  upon  the  resistance  to  longitudinal 
shear,  should  be  avoided  with  this  material.     The  following  table,  taken 

*A  very  excellent  pamphlet,  giving  the  important  results  of  some  of  the  experiments, 
mentioned,  has  been  published  by  the  Pacific  Pine  Lumber  Co.  of  San  Francisco. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


47 


from  a  paper  read  by  Prof.  Soule  before  the  Technical  Society  of  the 
Pacific  Coast,  shows  the  results  of  different  experimenters: 

TABLE  II. 
Tests  of  Oregon  Pine  {Dotiglas  Fir — Pseudotsuga  Douglasii). 


University  of 
California. 


United  States 

Government, 

Watertown. 


Arthur  Brown, 
for  S.  P.  Co. 


W.  A.  Gron- 
dahl,  for  Or. 
ikCal.  R.  R. 


Ultimate  crushing  strength 

Parallel  to  grain j 

Ultimate    shearing    strength,   i 
parallel  to  grain '( 

Ultimate  tensile  stren  gth 


5,055 


635 


8,496 

10,685 
5,772 

442 
356 

13,810 


6,000 

600 
15,900 


689 

16,600 


2.2.11.  The  pieces  selected  for  rods  must  be  straight-grained  and  as 
free  from  knots  as  possible.  Pieces  16"  square  and  70'  long  were 
obtained  of  the  requisite  quality  for  the  pumping-plant  of  the  Ontario 
Mine,  Park  City,  Utah.  Sections  of  such  length  are  transported  by  rail 
on  two  flat  cars,  being  supported  on  swivel  frames  placed  on  each  car. 

2.2.12.  Lengths  of  Pumjnocl  Sections.  The  sections  of  pumprods 
should  be  chosen  as  long  as  they  can  be  conveniently  handled,  because 
the  number  of  connections  is  then  reduced  and  more  free  rod-length 
available  for  attachment  of  pumps  or  balance-bobs.  The  long  strap- 
ping-plates often  required  for  wooden  rods  generally  necessitate  con- 
siderable length  of  the  sections. 

2.2.13.  The  admissible  length  of  pumprod  sections  for  vertical  shafts 
is  sometimes,  however,  limited  by  the  height  of  gallows-frames  or  build- 
ings, which  do  not  permit  raising  the  rods  vertically  prior  to  lowering 
them  down  the  shaft. 

2.2.14.  Connections  of  Wooden  Main  Pumprod  Sections.  The  iron 
strapping-plates  generally  used  for  connecting  the  sections  of  wooden 
main  pumprods  are  usually  four  in  number,  and  are  frequently  over  30' 
in  length.  The  16"  pumprod  at  the  Ontario  Mine,  previously  referred 
to,  had  strapping-plates  33'  long  of  l"x  10"  iron.  Two  opposite  strap- 
ping-plates are  secured  to  the  sections  by  bolts  passing  through  the 
wood.  The  bolts  are  usually  square  in  section  where  they  pass  through 
the  wood  and  through  the  plate  under  the  bolt-head.  The  bolts  should 
be  sufficiently  numerous  so  that  the  plates  will  hold  to  the  rods  by  fric- 
tion, independent  of  the  shearing  resistance  of  the  bolts.  It  is,  however, 
generally  customary  to  utilize  also  the  strength  of  the  bolts  of  one  pair 
of  plates  by  driving  hard-wood  keys  between  the  square  ends  of  the  rod 
sections  after  two  plates  have  been  bolted  in  place,  because  the  plates 
are  liable  to  become  loose  through  shrinkage  of  the  wood.  The  keys  are 
then  sawed  off  and  the  other  pair  of  plates  put  on.  The  bolt-holes  for 
these  in  one  of  the  sections  have  then  to  be  bored  in  the  shaft.  Where 
an  entire  new  line  of  rod  is  put  in,  it  is  well  to  permit  it  to  hang,  if  the 
time  can  be  spared,  after  one  pair  of  plates  have  been  put  on  each  joint. 
This  permits  the  rod  to  straighten  by  its  own  weight,  and  stretches  the 


48 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC. 


t, 


w 


$^ 


m 


mm 


Wi 


m 


IT- 


L  [-^ 


^§ 


c-r- 


t-----^ 


hiilinc 


\iree,\ 


i 


-J 


■R 


Fig.  50. 


Fig.  51. 


Fig.  52. 


Fig.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  ^        49 

joints  SO  that  the  keys  can  be  driven  home  with  better  effect.  The  keys 
between  the  ends  of  rod  sections  are  sometimes  omitted.  Fig.  50  shows 
a  usual  form  of  connection.  The  hook-splices  sometimes  used  to  addi- 
tionally connect  the  ends  of  the  rods,  cannot  add  much  to  the  strength 
of  the  joints.  Where  only  one  pair  of  strapping-plates  is  used  on  a  rod, 
they  are  more  liable  to  split  through  the  line  of  bolt-holes.  For  this 
reason,  also,  the  bolt-holes  in  the  plates  are  not  all  in  one  line,  but  are 
placed  in  zigzag  order. 

2.2.15.  Wooden  strapping-plates,  as  in  Fig.  51,  are  also  occasionally 
used.  As  the  plates  hold  the  rod  by  friction,  it  is  simpler  to  clamp  the 
plates  to  the  rod,  and  then  also  the  rod  and  plates  will  not  split  through 
bolt-holes.  Wooden  strapping-plates  have  a  better  hold  on  the  rod, 
because  the  coefficient  of  friction  between  wood  and  wood  is  greater  than 
between  iron  and  wood.  The  only  trouble  with  wooden  plates  is  the 
shrinkage  of  the  wood,  which  loosens  the  clamp-bolts,  and  therefore  these 
require  frequent  screwing  up.  Wooden  strapping-plates,  being  of  the 
same  material  as  the  rod,  contract  or  shrink  and  expand  equally  with 
the  latter,  while  iron  plates  are  liable  to  severe  strains,  their  expansion 
being  different  from  that  of  the  wooden  rod.  An  objection  to  wooden 
strapping-plates  is  the  space  they  occupy  in  the  shaft,  as  they  are 
naturally  much  thicker  than  iron  plates. 

2.2.16.  Additional  strength  of  joints  is  sometimes  aimed  at  by  over- 
lapping the  ends  of  the  rods  under  the  strapping-plates  by  a  separate 
piece  holding  the  rod  ends  by  means  of  steel  keys,  as  in  Fig.  52.  Such 
a  connection  was  used  at  the  Ontario  Mine,  previously  referred  to. 

2.2.17.  Main  pumprods  of  iron  or  steel  are  generally  so  constructed 
that  the  joints  in  the  different  lines  of  channels,  I-beams,  or  plates  com- 
posing the  rod  shall  alternate  or  break  joints,  so  that  no  two  joints  fall 
at  the  same  cross-section.  The  joints  are  secured  by  short  strapping- 
plates  held  to  the  sections  by  tapered  steel  bolts  well  fitted  into  the 
straps  and  rod  irons.  The  ends  of  the  beams  and  plates  composing  the 
rod  should  be  planed  true.  Keys  of  steel  running  through  the  rod  and 
strapping-plates  serve  to  bring  the  sections  hard  together,  so  that  the 
tapered  bolts  can  be  inserted  and  screwed  up.  It  is  important  that  the 
workmanship  of  the  joints  of  iron  and  steel  rods  be  perfect,  otherwise 
they  will  get  loose. 

2.2.18.  Connections  of  Sinking-Pump  Rods.  W^here  wooden  sinking- 
pump  rods  are  used,  they  are  often  connected  by  hook-splices  and  one 
pair  of  iron  strapping-plates,  as  in  Fig.  53.  The  connection  shown  is 
objectionable,  not  only  on  account  of  the  hook-splice,  but  also  for  oper- 
ating inside  of  the  sinking-column,  because  the  projecting  nuts  and  bolt- 
heads  wear  against  the  inside  of  the  pipe. 

2.2.19.  By  making  the  rods  of  oblong  section  greater  than  needed, 
the  strapping-plates  can  be  let  into  the  wood  deep  enough  to  keep  the 
nuts  and  bolt  ends  below  the  surface  of  the  wood,  and  thereby  prevent 
their  wearing  on  the  pipe.     (Fig.  54.) 

2.2.20.  Iron  pumprods  of  round  or  square  sections  are  much  used 
for  lift  pumps.  Being  always  in  tension,  the  joints  are  not  so  liable  to 
get  loose  as  with  main  pumprods.  Fig.  55  shows  a  form  of  connection, 
the  end  of  one  section  being  fitted  and  keyed  into  a  socket  formed  on 
the  other  section.     A  split  pin  through  the  projecting  smaller  end  of  the 


50 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


^  <■  -  ^  -  -  1^  ■ 


Fig.  55. 


I*  t/gineifSi 

3CS3d 


Fig.  56. 


bi  ■■  h  ■■  I    ■ 


//' 


'■«/' 


Fig.  57 


Fig.  58. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


51 


O 


key  prevents  it  getting  loose.  Fig.  56  illustrates  a  sinking-rod  joint 
much  used  in  Germany.  The  ends  of  both  sections  are  upset,  as  shown, 
and  tit  into  the  cast-iron  sleeve  a,  which  is  halved  on  a  plane  through 
its  axis  so  that  it  can  be  put  over  the  upset  ends.  A  wrought-iron  ring 
h  holds  the  halves  of  a  together,  and  bolts  c  c  keep  h  in  place.  The 
swelled  or  upset  ends  of  the  rods  are  shown  tapering,  but  they  can  also 
be  made  cylindrical  in  form  to  fit  into  a  corresponding  recess  in  the 
halved  cast  sleeve. 

2.2.21.  In  order  to  prevent  the  projecting  parts  of  iron  sinking-rods 
from  wearing  against  the  inside  of  the  column-pipe,  rubber  hubs  or 
bosses  (Fig.  55),  extending  in  diameter  beyond  any  of  the  projections  on 
the  rod,  are  often  vised.  They  are  mounted 
loosely  on  the  rod  which  they  surround, 
so  that  they  can  lag  behind  the  rod  in 
its  motion,  and  thereby  distribute  the  fluid 
resistance  of  the  passing  liquid  over  the 
up-  and  down-strokes.  Their  cross-section 
can  be  as  large  as  half  the  clear  area  of  the 
sinking-column. 

2.2.22.  Connections  of  Sinking-Rods  to 
Main  Rods.  The  usual  disposition  of  sink- 
ing-rods in  relation  to  main  rods  was  de- 
scribed in  2.2.04.  The  manner  of  offsetting 
and  clamping  the  sinking-rod  can  be  car-  f 
ried  out  in  various  ways.  Wooden  sinking- 
rods  are  often  clamped  to  a  wooden  block 
or  distance-piece,  which  is  also  secured  by 
clamps  or  bolts  to  the  main  rod,  as  shown 
by  Fig.  57.  Clamping  the  two  rods  by  one 
set  of  clamps,  with  the  block  between  the  rods,  is  a  bad  plan,  as  the 
shrinkage  of  so  thick  a  body  of  wood  is  more  liable  to  loosen  the  clamps. 
For  this  reason  it  is  still  better  to  use  a  cast-iron  distance-piece,  like 
Fig.  58,  between  the  rods.  Fig.  59  shows  a  distance-piece  for  a  round 
iron  sinking-rod.  Where  a  sinking-rod  is  connected  to  the  main  rod, 
guides  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  above  and  below  the  con- 
nection. 

2.2.23.  Preservation  of  Pumprods.  The  iron-work  of  pumprods  must 
be  protected  against  rust,  particularly  the  joints  and  the  inside  of  hol- 
low iron  pumprods.  Hauer  recommends  pickling  in  acid  to  remove 
rust,  then  coating  with  warm  oil,  and  finally  painting  with  red  lead. 

2.2.24.  The  rusting  of  iron  strapping-plates  and  bolts  has  a  tendency 
to  rot  the  wood  in  contact  with  them. 

2.2.25.  Wooden  rods  last  better  if  planed  and  painted,  as  the  water 
runs  off  more  readily.  The  abutting  ends  of  wooden  rods  should  always 
be  well  painted  with  thick  paint,  as  this  is  where  rotting  usually  first 
commences. 

2.2.26.  Connections  to  Motive  Power.  Wooden  pumprods,  where 
operated,  as  is  usually  the  case,  from  a  beam  or  bob,  are  generally 
coupled  directly  to  the  pin  in  the  bob-nose,  without  an  intermediate 
connecting-rod  or  link.  The  upper  end  of  a  rod  so  coupled  necessarily 
sways  back  and  forth  during  each  stroke  by  an  amount  equal  to  half 


LcEkE] 


-jy- 


"err 


Fig.  59. 


52 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


the  amount  of  curvature  of  the  arc  de- 
scribed by  the  bob-pin.  The  top  of  such 
a  wooden  pumprod  is  fitted  with  brass 
boxes  for  taking  hold  of  the  bob-pin.  The 
boxes  are  firmly  held  to  the  rod  by  heavy 
strapping-plates,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6(3, 
which  is  the  usual  form  of  top-connec- 
tion; Fig.  61  illustrates  a  connection  fox- 
extra  heavy  work. 

2.2.27.  Iron  main  pumprods  are  too 
stiff  to  admit  of  the  manner  of  connec- 
tion just  described.  They  are  therefore 
guided  in  a  straight  line  at  their  upper 
end,  and  connected  to  the  beam  or  bob- 
nose  by  a  link  or  connecting-rod. 

2.2.28.  Catches  and  Bumpers;  Stops, 
In  order  to  catch  the  rod  in  case  of  its 
rupture,  and  prevent  it  from  breaking 
pumps  and  other  more  valuable  ma- 
chinery in  the  shaft,  it  is  customary  to 

attach  projecting 
catches  to  the  rod, 
which  strike,  when 
the  rod  breaks,  on 


^■■^--1 


2.?>et 


ioxk. 


iZFfet; 


Fig.  62. 


Fig.  63 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


53 


ZFeet. 


Fig.  64. 


to  supports  or  bumpers  fixed  in  the  shaft.  Either  the  catches  or  the 
bumpers  must  be  armed  with  elastic  cushions  to  break  the  force  of  the 
blow. 

2.2.29.  In  order  to  reduce  the  stresses  due  to  arresting  the  falling 
rod,  the  energy  of  the  fall  can  be  consumed  gradually  by  causing  the 
rod  in  its  fall  to  perform  some  work  of  deformation  or  friction,  such  as 
breaking  successively  the  individual 
boards  of  a  pile,  or  causing  a  tightly 
gripping  clamp  to  slip  a  short  dis- 
tance on  the  rod,  which  will  bring 
it  gradually  to  rest. 

2.2.30.  Catches  and  stops  or 
bumpers  are  particularly  needed 
with  engines  of  the  non-rotative 
type,  because  with  these  there  exists 
also  the  danger  of  the  stroke  be- 
coming greater  than  its  intended 
limits,  through  variations  in  steam 
pressure  or  neglect  in  regulation  of 
the  pumps.  Such  engines  also  re- 
quire catches  to  limit  the  up-stroke,  though  only  one  or  two  are  required 
close  to  the  engine;  generally  at  the  beam.  These  engine-catches  and 
stops  require  to  be  only  moderately  elastic,  as  they  merely  operate  to 
prevent  the  engine  from  exceeding  the  proper  limits  of  its  stroke  during 
its  regular  work,  while  the  rod-bumpers  have  to  consume  the  energy  of 

a  weight  falling  possibly  a  distance  equal  to  the 
stroke  of  the  pumprod. 

2.2.31.  Fig.  62  shows  wooden  catches,  and  Fig.  63 
catches  of  cast-iron  clamped  to  a  wooden  rod.  It  is 
best  to  secure  the  catches  to  the  rod  with  bolts  not 
passing  through  the  latter,  as  shown,  because  then 
the  bumpers  can  slip  a  little  under  a  heavy  fall, 
while  the  blow  will  be  less  severe,  as  the  friction 
work  produced  by  the  slipping  will  help  to  gradually 
consume  the  energy  contained  in  the  falling  rod. 
Clamping  on  the  catches  also  secures  their  adjust- 
ability. 

2.2.32.  The  elastic  cushion  or  bumper  proper  is 
usually  most  conveniently  attached  to  the  fixed 
bumper-frame.     The  one  shown  in  Fig.  64  consists 

ajiii  of  cork   or  old   rope   confined  in   an   iron    box  or 
p-jQ  g5  cylinder,    and   covered   by    an   iron   plate   with    a 

wooden  block,  on  top  of  which  the  catches  strike. 

2.2.33.  Fig.  65  shows  a  bumper  constructed  of  boards  with  interven- 
ing spaces.  The  boards  are  successively  broken  by  the  catches  on  the 
falling  rod,  and  by  their  resistance  to  breakage  gradually  lessen,  if  not 
entirely  consume,  the  destructive  energy  of  the  falling  rod  before  the  last 
board  is  broken. 

2.2.34.  In  constructing  rod-bumpers  the  distance  passed  through  by 
the  rod  in  overcoming  resistance  must  not  be  as  great  as  the  space  in 
the  pump-barrel  below  the  plungers  when  in  their  lowest  position; 
otherwise,  the  plungers  will  strike  the  bottom,  and  parts  of  the  pump 
may  be  broken.     Similarly  other  projecting  attachments  of  the  rod  or 


rfj" 


icockxKt: 


54 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


balance-bobs  must  not  come  closer 
in  operation  to  fixed  parts  than 
permitted  by  the  range  of  the  bum- 
per. It  is  a  good  plan  to  place  a 
bumper  above  every  set  of  pumps. 

2.2.35.  Guides  or  Stays.  Pump- 
rod  guides,  also  called  stays,  should 
be  placed  sufficiently  close  together 
to  render  the  rod  safe  from  buckling 
under  compressive  strains,  and  they 
should    be    kept   carefully  in    line 


to 


&ak. 


Fig.  67. 


where  these  strains  are  great.  They 
should  always  he  located  as  near 
as  possible  to  points  where  lateral 
strains  might  cause  deflection,  as 
above  and  below  balance-bob  and 
pump  connections.  The  guide 
frames  are  fixed  to  the  shaft  timbers, 
and  are  provided  with  wearing- 
blocks  made  adjustable  for  taking 
jj/w.  up  wear  and  keeping  the  rod  in  line, 
and  the  rod  is  armed  with  inter- 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


55 


changeable  wearing-strips  at  the  guides.  Fig.  66  shows  a  guide  with 
wooden  wearing-strips  on  the  rod,  the  strips  consisting  of  pine  boards, 
which  should  not  be  nailed  to  the  rod,  but  clamped  to  it  at  the  ends 
by  a  frame  of  eye-bolts,  as  in  Fig.  67,  called  "lamb's  legs"  by  the 
miner.  Where  strap- 
ping-plates occur  on  KA,  aWhI 
the  rod,  a  construction  ^  lyWy^VN 
like  that  shown  in  Fig. 
68  must  be  used.  On 
account  of  the  reduced 
surface,  the  wearing- 
strips  and  wearing- 
blocks  are  faced  with 
flat  iron.  For  the  sake 
of  uniformity,  all  the 
guides  are  often  made 
the  same  as  those  at 
the  strapping-plates. 

2.2.36.  The  lubri- 
cants mostly  used  with 
guides  are  tallow  for 
wood,  and  a  mixture  :^^ijl 
of  cheap  mineral  oil 
and  tallow  for  iron. 
Albany  compound  and 
axle-grease  are  too  ex- 
pensive for  general  use. 

2.2.37.  It  was  men- 
tioned in  2.2.26  that 
wooden  main  pump- 
rods  are  generally  con- 
nected directly  to  the 
pin  in  the  nose  of  the 
beam  or  bob  operating 
the  rod,  and  that  there- 
by the  upper  end  of  the 
rod  is  deflected  alter- 
nately in  opposite  di- 
rections, while  its  lower 
end  follows  the  arc  de- 
scribed by  the  bob- 
nose.  The  aim  should 
be  to  distribute  this 
deflection  of  the  rod 
uniformly  over  a  con- 
siderable length  so  as 
to  minimize  the  deflec- 
tion strains.  The  greater  the  deflection  and  the  larger  the  rod,  the 
longer  must  be  the  part  over  which  the  deflection  must  be  distributed. 
In  order  to  obtain  the  least  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  uniform 
deflection  strains,  the  rod  must  be  curved  to  the  arc  of  a  circle.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  stay  and  guide  each  part  in  its  proper  path. 
The  part  of  the  rod  working  in  the  guides  which  fall  within  the  range 

5 — MD 


Fig.  69. 


56  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

of  deflection  has  therefore  iron  curved  wearing-strips,  as  shown  in  Fig.  69,, 
the  amount  of  curvature  being  greater  the  nearer  the  guide  is  to  the 
upper  end  of  the  rod.  Such  an  arrangement  of  guide  and  wearing- 
strips  is  generally  called  a  "  sweep-stay." 

2.2.38.  The  proper  distance  apart  of  guides  depends  upon  the  load 
on  the  rod  and  upon  its  cross-section,  and  can  be  determined  properly 
only  by  calculation. 

2.2.39.  Where  lateral  strains  are  introduced,  guides  should  be  made 
of  extra  strength,  and  the  wearing-surfaces  increased  correspondingly 
with  the  greater  pressure. 

2.2.40.  Pumprods  in  inclines  are  supported  and  guided  by  rollers. 
The  guide-rollers  are  generally  stationary  and  supported  in  frames  fixed 
to  the  shaft  timbering.  Sometimes,  however,  rollers  are  attached  to  the 
rod,  and  travel  with  it  on  tracks  and  under  fixed  top  guard-rails.  The 
points  of  support  should  be  numerous,  in  order  to  prevent  sagging  of  the 
rod.     The  rollers  should  be  adjustable  to  enable  keeping  the  rod  in  line. 

2.2.41.  The  application  of  the  Cornish  system  in  inclines  is  attended 
with  many  drawbacks.  The  rods  are,  on  account  of  sag,  less  able  to 
bear  great  compressive  strains;  the  friction  is  great  where  the  inclina- 
tion is  considerable,  and  the  plungers  wear  on  one  side  only  and  are 
hard  to  keep  tight.  Less  speed  is  also  admissible  on  account  of  greater 
masses  than  for  the  same  lift  in  a  vertical  shaft. 

2.2.42.  Sinking-rods  inside  of  a  sinking-column  cannot  be  used  in 
inclines.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  use  a  jackhead  pump  with  outside 
rod  guided  like  the  main  rod,  unless  direct-acting  pumps,  driven  by 
steam  or  compressed  air,  are  used  for  sinking. 

2.2.43.  Adjustment  of  Weight  of  Puviprods ;  Balancing  Appliances, 
In  designing  a  pumprod  for  operating  a  series  of  single-acting  plungers, 
with  or  without  a  sinking  lift-pump,  the  aim  should  be  to  get  the  rod  of 
such  weight  that  the  work  on  the  up-stroke  shall  be  equal  to  that  on  the 
down-stroke  without  resorting  to  the  use  of  balancing  mechanism.  It 
was  shown  in  2.1.04  that  in  order  to  secure  this  result  the  weight  of  the 
pumprod  and  attachments  must  be  equal  to  one  half  the  aggregate 
pressure  on  the  plungers,  plus  one  half  the  upward  thrust  due  to  the 
buoyancy  of  the  sinking-rod  (where  this  operates  inside  the  sinking- 
column),  minus  the  total  pressure  on  the  lift-pump-bucket.  Balancing 
appliances  in  general  can  only  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  iron  rods. 
Wooden  rods,  in  nearly  every  case  of  deeper  mines,  require  counter- 
weights to  equalize  the  work  of  the  two  strokes. 

2.2.44.  The  overweight  of  rods  may  sometimes  be  balanced  without 
the  use  of  other  appliances,  by  placing  the  plungers  a  considerable  dis- 
tance below  the  supply-tank,  thereby  increasing  the  height  of  both  the 
suction-  and  discharge-columns,  so  that  the  work  on  the  suction-stroke 
is  decreased  by  the  lifting  effect  of  the  downwardly  extending  suction- 
column,  and  that  on  the  forcing-stroke  increased  by  an  equal  amount 
due  to  the  increased  height  of  discharge  column.  This  plan  is,  however, 
only  applicable  where  a  moderate  amount  of  balancing  is  required,  as  it 
subjects  the  plungers  to  higher  pressure  and  greater  friction,  and  is 
liable  to  cause  heavier  shocks,  while  it  also  reduces  the  admissible  speed 
at  which  the  pumps  can  be  safely  operated. 

2.2.45.  The  use  of  larger  pumps  operated  at  lower  speeds  may  also 
sometimes  serve  to  overcome  a  moderate  difference  in  the  work  of  the 


X 


\ 


\ 


\ 


\ 


\ 


\  -^x 


\  s> , 


FlQ.  72. 


FlQ.  71. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  57 

two  strokes.  It  is  true  that  the  rod  would,  by  the  arrangements  de- 
scribed in  this  and  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  on  account  of  the  greater 
compressive  strains,  also  need  to  be  increased  in  size,  and  consequently 
in  weight,  but  this  increase  will  be  less  than  that  of  the  increase  in 
strength  required  by  the  greater  resistance  of  the  larger  pumps. 

2.2.46.  In  most  cases  the  amount  of  counterbalance  required,  necessi- 
tates the  use  of  special  appliances,  such  as  balance-bobs,  or  hydraulic 
or  pneumatic  counterbalances. 

2.2.47.  The  main  bob  or  beam  generally  employed  to  work  the 
pumprod  from  the  surface  is  usually  arranged  with  a  balance-weight. 
As  the  depth  increases  and  additional  counterbalance  becomes  neces- 
sary, other  balance-bobs  are  connected  to  the  rod  below  ground  at 
intervals.  These  balance-bobs  consist  of  braced  beams,  as  in  Fig.  70, 
which  shows  a  balance-bob  constructed  of  wood  with  wrought-iron  tension 
members  and  cast-iron  bishop-head  and  nosepiece.  The  bob  is  shown 
in  midstroke,  the  inclined  position  of  the  frame  being  necessary  for  this 
point  of  the  stroke  in  order  to  bring  the  bob-nosepiece  on  a  level  with 
the  bob-center.  The  counterweight  should  also  have  its  center  of  gravity 
on  the  same  level.  In  this  manner  only  will  the  leverages  be  equal  for 
the  ends  of  the  stroke.  Rubber  cushions  mounted  on  blocking  below 
the  beam  are  also  usually  put  in  to  act  as  bob-bumpers  in  case  the  limits 
of  the  stroke  are  exceeded,  or  as  catches  when  the  bob-connection  is 
ruptured.     Fig.  71  gives  an  example  of  a  bob  with  cast-iron  arms. 

2.2.48.  Where  hoisting-compartments  are  connected  with  the  pump- 
shaft,  balance-bobs  should  be  located  at  the  side  opposite  to  the  hoisting- 
compartment,  because  in  this  way  the  ground  around  the  shaft  at  the 
bob-stations  remains  in  the  best  supported  condition. 

2.2.49.  The  balance-weight  consists  usually  of  a  large  number  of 
short  sections  of  old  rails  placed  in  a  strong  wooden  box,  the  construc- 
tion of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  70.  The  number  of  small  pieces  enables 
adjusting  the  amount  of  counterweight  easily.  The  latter  sometimes 
amounts  to  as  much  as  30  tons.  As  sinking  proceeds  and  the  main  or 
the  sinking-pump  rod  is  lengthened,  increase  or  decrease  of  the  balance- 
weights  becomes  necessary.  The  difference  in  speed  between  the  up- 
and  down-stroke  will  indicate  in  what  sense  the  balance-weight  must  be 
changed.  In  non-rotative  pump-engines  particularly,  the  work  of  the 
up-  and  down-strokes  of  the  engine  can  be  adjusted  to  a  limited  extent 
to  suit  the  unbalanced  condition,  instead  of  adjusting  the  balance- 
weight  to  obtain  equal  work  on  both  strokes.  The  inequality  will  then 
be  shown  by  indicator-cards  taken  from  the  engine. 

2.2.50.  The  connection  to  the  pumprod,  by  means  of  a  single  link 
coupled  to  one  side  of  the  pumprod,  as  in  Fig.  72,  is  now  seldom  used, 
as  it  introduces  objectionable  bending-strains. 

2.2.51.  Double  links  at  two  opposite  sides  of  the  rod  are  now  gener- 
ally used,  by  which  central  strains  are  obtained  on  the  rod.  Such 
connections  require  a  forked  nose  on  the  bob.  The  construction  shown 
in  Fig.  70  is,  notwithstanding  its  faulty  design,  the  most  used.  The 
coupling-plates  on  the  rod  for  connecting  to  the  links  should  be  clamped 
to  the  rod  by  bolts  not  passing  through  the  rod,  so  that  they  can  be 
adjusted  in  their  proper  position.  A  difficulty  with  such  double  links 
is  to  keep  them  adjusted  so  that  each  link  will  receive  its  proportion  of 
the  load. 

2.2.52.  The  increase  of  mass  due  to  the  use  of  balance- weights  reduces 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  57 

two  strokes.  It  is  true  that  the  rod  would,  by  the  arrangements  de- 
scribed in  this  and  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  on  account  of  the  greater 
compressive  strains,  also  need  to  be  increased  in  size,  and  consequently 
in  weight,  but  this  increase  will  be  less  than  that  of  the  increase  in 
strength  required  by  the  greater  resistance  of  the  larger  pumps. 

2.2.46.  In  most  cases  the  amount  of  counterbalance  required,  necessi- 
tates the  use  of  special  appliances,  such  as  balance-bobs,  or  hydraulic 
or  pneumatic  counterbalances. 

2.2.47.  The  main  bob  or  beam  generally  employed  to  work  the 
pumprod  from  the  surface  is  usually  arranged  with  a  balance-weight. 
As  the  depth  increases  and  additional  counterbalance  becomes  neces- 
sary, other  balance-bobs  are  connected  to  the  rod  below  ground  at 
intervals.  These  balance-bobs  consist  of  braced  beams,  as  in  Fig.  70, 
which  shows  a  balance-bob  constructed  of  wood  with  wrought-iron  tension 
members  and  cast-iron  bishop-head  and  nosepiece.  The  bob  is  shown 
in  midstroke,  the  inclined  position  of  the  frame  being  necessary  for  this 
point  of  the  stroke  in  order  to  bring  the  bob-nosepiece  on  a  level  with 
the  bob-center.  The  counterweight  should  also  have  its  center  of  gravity 
on  the  same  level.  In  this  manner  only  will  the  leverages  be  equal  for 
the  ends  of  the  stroke.  Rubber  cushions  mounted  on  blocking  below 
the  beam  are  also  usually  put  in  to  act  as  bob-bumpers  in  case  the  limits 
of  the  stroke  are  exceeded,  or  as  catches  when  the  bob-connection  is 
ruptured.     Fig.  71  gives  an  example  of  a  bob  with  cast-iron  arms. 

2.2.48.  Where  hoisting-compartments  are  connected  with  the  pump- 
shaft,  balance-bobs  should  be  located  at  the  side  opposite  to  the  hoisting- 
compartment,  because  in  this  way  the  ground  around  the  shaft  at  the 
bob-stations  remains  in  the  best  supported  condition. 

2.2.49.  The  balance-weight  consists  usually  of  a  large  number  of 
short  sections  of  old  rails  placed  in  a  strong  wooden  box,  the  construc- 
tion of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  70.  The  number  of  small  pieces  enables 
adjusting  the  amount  of  counterweight  easily.  The  latter  sometimes 
amounts  to  as  much  as  30  tons.  As  sinking  proceeds  and  the  main  or 
the  sinking-pump  rod  is  lengthened,  increase  or  decrease  of  the  balance- 
weights  becomes  necessary.  The  difference  in  speed  between  the  up- 
and  down-stroke  will  indicate  in  what  sense  the  balance-weight  must  be 
changed.  In  non-rotative  pump-engines  particularly,  the  work  of  the 
up-  and  down-strokes  of  the  engine  can  be  adjusted  to  a  limited  extent 
to  suit  the  unbalanced  condition,  instead  of  adjusting  the  balance- 
weight  to  obtain  equal  work  on  both  strokes.  The  inequality  will  then 
be  shown  by  indicator-cards  taken  from  the  engine. 

2.2.50.  The  connection  to  the  pumprod,  by  means  of  a  single  link 
coupled  to  one  side  of  the  pumprod,  as  in  Fig.  72,  is  now  seldom  used, 
as  it  introduces  objectionable  bending-strains. 

2.2.51.  Double  links  at  two  opposite  sides  of  the  rod  are  now  gener- 
ally used,  by  which  central  strains  are  obtained  on  the  rod.  Such 
connections  require  a  forked  nose  on  the  bob.  The  construction  shown 
in  Fig.  70  is,  notwithstanding  its  faulty  design,  the  most  used.  The 
coupling-plates  on  the  rod  for  connecting  to  the  links  should  be  clamped 
to  the  rod  by  bolts  not  passing  through  the  rod,  so  that  they  can  be 
adjusted  in  their  proper  position,  A  difficulty  with  such  double  links 
is  to  keep  them  adjusted  so  that  each  link  will  receive  its  proportion  of 
the  load. 

2.2.52.  The  increase  of  mass  due  to  the  use  of  balance-weights  reduces 


58 


MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC. 


the  speed  at  which  the  pumping-system  may  be  safely  permitted  to 

operate,  but  it  also  permits  higher  degrees  of  expansion  to  be  used  in 

the  case  of  operating  by  non-rotative  engines. 

2.2.53.     Hydraulic  counterbalances,  consisting  of  a  plunger  operating 

in  a  barrel  like  that  of  a  pump,  against  a  column  of  water,  which  con- 
stitutes the  counterweight,  are  more  objec- 
tionable than  the  rigid  balance-bob. 

2.2.54.  By  using  compressed  air,  instead 
of  a  column  of  water,  in  a  similar  manner,  a 
counterbalance  is  obtained  without  the  evil 
of  increased  mass.  Such  counterbalances 
require  no  excavations  like  balance-bobs. 

2.2.55.  The  distance  apart  at  which  coun- 
terbalances are  required  depends  greatly 
upon  conditions.  The  closer  they  are  to- 
gether, the  smaller  will  be  the  units  and  the 
less  will  be  the  maximum  compression  strains 
on  the  rods,  but  the  greater  will  also  be  their 
cost,  particularly  if  the  balancing  appliances 
require  the  excavation  and  timbering  of 
stations.  Counterbalances  decrease  the  ten- 
sile strain  and  increase  the  compression 
strains  in  the  rod.  Their  distribution  and 
amount  should  be  determined  by  careful 
calculations. 

2.2.56.  The  rod  can  sometimes  be  divided, 
and  the  two  parts  connected  to  opposite  ends 
of  a  beam,  as  shown  in  Fig.  73,  thus  obtain- 
ing a  balance  without  the  use  of  extra  coun- 
terweights. The  plan  illustrated  was  carried 
out  at  a  mine  in  Belgium,  but  can  only  have 
application  under  special  conditions,  as  the 
offset  in  the  shaft  is  objectionable.  The 
offset  could  in  some  cases,  however,  be 
avoided  by  such  a  construction  as  shown  in 
Fig.  74  or  Fig.  75. 

2.2.57.  The  principle  just  illustrated  can 
often  be  applied  with  advantage  where  a 
change  of  direction  necessitates  a  bob  or  bell- 
crank  to  connect  pumprods  at  an  angle;  the 
bob  can  be  designed  and  located  so  that  the 
rods  take  hold  of  opposite  arms  of  the  bob 
and  balance  each  other  more  or  less  com- 
pletely.    Such   an    arrangement,  shown   in 

Fig.  76,  was  introduced  in  the  Lady  Bryan  Mine,  near  Virginia  City, 
Nev.  The  double  pumprod  arrangement  used  at  the  Alta  Mine,  Vir- 
ginia City,  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  77,  also  affords  a  perfect  balance,  a 
moderate  counterbalance  being  only  required  when  the  lift-pump  work 
is  done  entirely  by  one  of  the  rods.  The  double  rod  arrangement, 
however,  takes  up  considerable  room  in  the  shaft. 

2.2.58.     Changes  in  Direction  of  Pumprods;   Angle-Bohs.     One  very 
good  arrangement  has  already  been  described  in  the  preceding  para- 


6j>et. 


Fig.  80. 


59 

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MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  59 

graph.  It  is,  however,  not  always  possible  to  place  the  bob  as  shown 
in  Fig.  76,  and  other  less  advantageous  constructions  have  to  be  used. 
Figs.  78  and  79  illustrate  forms  of  bobs  and  bell-cranks  that  are 
common.     In  Fig.  79  the  bell-crank  serves  also  as  balance-bob. 

2.2.59.  Slight  changes  in  direction  are  often  made  without  the  use 
of  bobs  or  bell-cranks,  by  having  the  ends  of  the  rods  fitted  with  rollers 
guided  in  straight  lines,  and  simply  coupling  them  by  a  link,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  80. 

2.2.60.  Strains  in  Pumprods.  During  the  up-stroke  the  main  pump- 
rod  is  in  tension,  due  to  the  weight  of  the  rod  and  attachments  plus  the 
pressure  of  the  column  of  water  on  the  lift-pump-bucket.  On  the  down- 
stroke  the  strains  change  to  compression,  and  these  are  due  to  the 
excess  of  the  resistance  overcome  by  the  plungers  over  and  above  the 
weight  of  the  rod.  The  counterbalances  reduce  the  tension  strains 
above  the  sections  where  applied  by  an  amount  equal  to  the  upward 
force  exerted  by  them,  and  increase  the  compression  strains  by  an  equal 
amount.  The  resultants  of  these  strains  are  modified  by  those  due  to 
the  inertia  of  the  rod  attachments  and  counterweights;  that  is,  by  the 
force  required  to  give  the  rod  the  required  velocity  in  a  given  time 
during  the  early  part  of  the  stroke,  and  that  required  to  be  subtracted 
from  the  motive  force  during  the  final  part  of  the  stroke,  so  that  the  rod 
may  come  to  rest  quietly  within  the  limits  of  its  travel.  In  addition, 
bending  strains  are  often  introduced  by  lateral  disposition  of  single 
plunger  pumps,  or  sinking-rods.  Those  due  to  the  latter  are  of  little 
moment,  because  they  occur  near  the  lower  end  of  the  rod,  where  the 
other  strains  are  light.  The  upper  end  of  the  rod  is  generally  strained 
the  most  in  tension,  while  the  point  at  which  the  greatest  compression 
strain  occurs  depends  upon  the  distribution  of  pumps  and  balancing 
appliances. 

2.2.61.  Owing  to  their  elasticity,  long  pumprods  extend  considerably 
under  tension  on  the  up-stroke,  and  shorten  under  compression  on  the 
down-stroke.  The  result  of  this  is,  that  the  lower  pumps  do  not  operate 
at  their  full  stroke.  Another  result  which  follows,  and  is  intensified  by 
the  inertia  of  the  rod,  particularly  at  higher  speed,  is,  that  the  upper  part 
of  the  rod  will  be  already  in  motion  and  will  have  performed  a  portion 
of  its  stroke  when  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  begins  its  motion.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that  the  ends  of  the  strokes  of  the  successive  pumps 
attached  to  the  rod  at  different  levels  cannot  occur  at  exactly  the  same 
time.  Attention  was  first  called  to  the  logical  necessity  of  these  results 
by  Hraback  and  Bochkolz.  (See  Hauer,  Wasserhaltings-machinen.) 
Experiments  made  by  W.  R.  Eckart,  in  1880,  on  pumps  of  Comstock 
mines,  proved  the  correctness  of  this  reasoning. 

2.2.62.  Wooden  rods  are  more  elastic  than  iron  ones.  Their  weight 
is  also  greater  for  the  same  strength,  and  therefore  the  variation  in 
extent  and  coincidence  of  stroke  of  pumps  must  be  greatest  with  wooden 
rods. 

2.2.63.  Wire  Rope.  Single  wire  ropes  are  occasionally  used  instead 
of  rods  for  operating  draw-lift  pumps,  in  which  case  there  must  be  a 
heavy  weight  connected  with  the  bucket  to  effect  its  down-stroke.  A 
recent  arrangement  of  this  kind  which  has  been  successfully  used  for 
sinking-pump  work  in  a  deep  mine  in  Bohemia  is  described  in  2.3.33 
and  2.3.34. 


58 

the  s 
opera 
the  ci 
2.2. 
in  a  1 


i'^ 


Fig.  7( 
Nev. 
ginia  ( 
moder; 
is  don 
howevc 


2.2.5 
good  a 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  59 

graph.  It  is,  however,  not  always  possible  to  place  the  bob  as  shown 
in  Fig.  76,  and  other  less  advantageous  constructions  have  to  be  used. 
Figs.  78  and  79  illustrate  forms  of  bobs  and  bell-cranks  that  are 
common.     In  Fig.  79  the  bell-crank  serves  also  as  balance-bob. 

2.2.59.  Slight  changes  in  direction  are  often  made  without  the  use 
of  bobs  or  bell-cranks,  by  having  the  ends  of  the  rods  fitted  with  rollers 
guided  in  straight  lines,  and  simply  coupling  them  by  a  link,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  80.' 

2.2.60.  Strains  in  Pumprods.  During  the  up-stroke  the  main  pump- 
rod  is  in  tension,  due  to  the  weight  of  the  rod  and  attachments  plus  the 
pressure  of  the  column  of  water  on  the  lift-pump-bucket.  On  the  down- 
stroke  the  strains  change  to  compression,  and  these  are  due  to  the 
excess  of  the  resistance  overcome  by  the  plungers  over  and  above  the 
weight  of  the  rod.  The  counterbalances  reduce  the  tension  strains 
above  the  sections  where  applied  by  an  amount  equal  to  the  upward 
force  exerted  by  them,  and  increase  the  compression  strains  by  an  equal 
amount.  The  resultants  of  these  strains  are  modified  by  those  due  to 
the  inertia  of  the  rod  attachments  and  counterweights;  that  is,  by  the 
force  required  to  give  the  rod  the  required  velocity  in  a  given  time 
during  the  early  part  of  the  stroke,  and  that  required  to  be  subtracted 
from  the  motive  force  during  the  final  part  of  the  stroke,  so  that  the  rod 
may  come  to  rest  quietly  within  the  limits  of  its  travel.  In  addition, 
bending  strains  are  often  introduced  by  lateral  disposition  of  single 
plunger  pumps,  or  sinking-rods.  Those  due  to  the  latter  are  of  little 
moment,  because  they  occur  near  the  lower  end  of  the  rod,  where  the 
other  strains  are  light.  The  upper  end  of  the  rod  is  generally  strained 
the  most  in  tension,  while  the  point  at  which  the  greatest  compression 
strain  occurs  depends  upon  the  distribution  of  pumps  and  balancing 
appliances. 

2.2.61.  Owing  to  their  elasticity,  long  pumprods  extend  considerably 
under  tension  on  the  up-stroke,  and  shorten  under  compression  on  the 
down-stroke.  The  result  of  this  is,  that  the  lower  pumps  do  not  operate 
at  their  full  stroke.  Another  result  which  follows,  and  is  intensified  by 
the  inertia  of  the  rod,  particularly  at  higher  speed,  is,  that  the  upper  part 
of  the  rod  will  be  already  in  motion  and  will  have  performed  a  portion 
of  its  stroke  when  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  begins  its  motion.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that  the  ends  of  the  strokes  of  the  successive  pumps 
attached  to  the  rod  at  different  levels  cannot  occur  at  exactly  the  same 
time.  Attention  was  first  called  to  the  logical  necessity  of  these  results 
by  Hraback  and  Bochkolz.  (See  Hauer,  Wasserhaltings-machinen.) 
Experiments  made  by  W.  R.  Eckart,  in  1880,  on  pumps  of  Comstock 
mines,  proved  the  correctness  of  this  reasoning. 

2.2.62.  Wooden  rods  are  more  elastic  than  iron  ones.  Their  weight 
is  also  greater  for  the  same  strength,  and  therefore  the  variation  in 
extent  and  coincidence  of  stroke  of  pumps  must  be  greatest  with  wooden 
rods. 

2.2.63.  Wire  Rope.  Single  wire  ropes  are  occasionally  used  instead 
of  rods  for  operating  draw-lift  pumps,  in  which  case  there  must  be  a 
heavy  weight  connected  with  the  bucket  to  effect  its  down-stroke.  A 
recent  arrangement  of  this  kind  which  has  been  successfully  used  for 
sinking-pump  work  in  a  deep  mine  in  Bohemia  is  described  in  2.3.33 
and  2.3.34. 


60  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

2.2,64.  Two  wire  ropes  connected  to  opposite  ends  of  double-armed 
levers  at  the  surface  and  bottom,  so  as  to  act  like  a  rigid  rod,  have  been 
also  used  for  double-acting  pumps  at  moderate  depths.  This  system 
has,  however,  only  limited  application. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Sinking-Pumps. 

2.3.01.  Types  of  Sinking -Puvips.  It  has  already  been  stated  in 
1.1.03  and  2.1.02  that  where  pumps  are  operated  by  rods,  as  in  the 
Cornish  system,  the  lowest  or  sinking-pump,  unless  it  be  of  the  direct- 
acting,  steam-pump  type,  is  nearly  always  a  lift  pump,  because  this 
type  can  be  more  readily  operated  and  repaired  when  obliged  to  work 
under  water.  The  lift  pumprod,  where  the  total  lift  is  too  great  for  one 
pump  and  one  or  more  plungers  are  needed  above  the  sinking-pump,  is 
usually  coupled  to  an  offset  bracket  bolted  on  the  main  pumprod,  as 
described  in  the  preceding  chapter  (2.2.04  and  2.2.22).  Where  the 
total  lift  is  within  the  range  allowable  for  the  sinking-pump,  it  is 
worked  directly  from  a  bob  driven  by  a  steam  engine  or  other  motor. 

2.3.02.  Sinking-pumps  in  deep  shafts  have  in  some  recent  cases  been 
operated  by  a  wire  rope,  worked  by  a  bob.     (See  2.2.63.) 

2.3.03.  Sinking-pumps  are  subject  to  much  greater  wear  and  tear  in 
the  shaft  than  the  other  pumps,  because  in  their  case  it  is  not  practi- 
cable to  settle  the  sand  or  mud  from  the  water  before  it  enters  the 
pump,  which  can  very  easily  be  done  with  the  other  pumps. 

2.3.04.  In  designing  a  sinking-pump  the  aim  should  therefore  be 
more  to  secure  uninterrupted  operation,  or  facility  for  rapid  repairing, 
than  economical  pumping.  Economy  is  not  of  great  importance  here, 
particularly  in  deep  mines,  where  the  sinking  work  usually  constitutes 
but  a  small  proportion  of  the  entire  pumping  work. 

2.3.05.  The  ordinary  or  English  form  of  lift  pump,  generally  used  in 
vertical  shafts,  has  its  working-barrel  in  line  with  its  discharge-column, 
and  the  sinking-rod  works  inside  the  latter.  Fig.  81  illustrates  a  com- 
mon type  of  Cornish  sinking-pump.  The  suction-pipe  is  either  a  rigid 
casting,  as  shown,  with  which  the  pump  rests  on  the  bottom  of  the  shaft, 
or  it  is  made  with  a  slip-joint  so  that  it  can  be  raised  or  lowered  while 
the  pump  is  temporarily  secured,  or  it  is  simply  a  suction-hose  with 
strainer,  as  in  Fig.  82.  The  pumps  are  usually  attached  to  a  sinking- 
frame  guided  in  the  shaft,  as  in  Fig.  83,  the  frame  with  pump  being 
raised  or  lowered,  as  required,  by  chain-blocks,  winches,  or  a  special 
pump-hoist  at  the  surface.  In  most  instances,  the  sinking-frame  is  only 
as  long  as  the  pump,  and  the  column-pipe  is  guided  independently. 
The  pumps  with  rigid  suction-pipes  are  often  not  guided  in  the  shaft,  so 
that  the  lower  end  of  the  suction-pipe  may  be  swung  around  to  a  limited 
extent.  The  chamber  for  the  suction-valve  below  the  working-barrel  is 
fitted  with  a  door  for  gaining  access  to  the  valve.  A  casting  with  a  door 
is  placed  on  top  of  the  working-barrel  to  get  at  the  bucket  without  hav- 
ing to  draw  it  up  through  the  entire  length  of  the  column-pipe,  which 
need  only  be  done  when  the  pump  is  submerged.  This  type  of  pump 
being  all  in  one  line  with  the  column-pipe,  occupies  very  little  room 
in  a  shaft,  and  is  therefore  most  generally  used  with  the  Cornish  system 
in  vertical  shafts. 


w 


I  s 

m 


iki 


W 


Fig.  81. 


Fig.  82. 


Fig.  83. 


62  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

2.3.06.  In  inclines  it  is  not  possible  to  use  the  kind  of  pump  just 
described,  because,  as  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  rod  would 
rub  heavily  against  the  inside  of  the  column-pipe  and  soon  wear  it 
through.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  use  a  pump  having  the  rod  out- 
side of  the  column-pipe.  The  jackhead  lift-pump  (Fig.  84)  is  of  this 
kind.  The  column-pipe  is  here  laterally  connected  at  the  top  of  the 
working-barrel  by  a  gooseneck,  while  the  bucket  rod  passes  out  through 
a  stuffing-box  in  a  cover,  bolted  to  the  top  of  the  pump-barrel,  and  is 
connected  to  the  sinking-rod  outside.  In  inclines  particularly,  the  latter 
must  be  guided  like  the  main  pumprod. 

2.3.07.  The  arrangement  of  jackhead  pumps  varies  with  reference  to 
relative  position  of  valves.  Some  have  the  suction-valve  below  the 
working-barrel,  like  the  English  sinking-pump.  In  others,  the  valve  in 
the  bucket  constitutes  the  suction-valve,  and  the  discharge-valve  is 
placed  above  the  gooseneck,  which  arrangement  admits  of  taking  out 
the  bucket  without  letting  the  water  out  of  the  column-pipe.  Another 
form  has  a  valve  below  the  barrel  and  one  above  the  gooseneck,  as  in 
Fig.  85.  It  is  evident  that  where  the  usual  hinged  valve  or  clack  is  used 
with  jackheads  in  inclines,  the  hinge  must  be  at  the  upper  edge  of  the 
valve. 

2.3.08.  Jackhead  pumps  cannot  be  operated  under  water  for  any 
length  of  time,  because  the  vital  part  (the  bucket)  which  requires 
frequent  repairs  cannot  be  hauled  up  through  the  column-pipe.  They 
are,  therefore,  usually  attached  to  long  frames,  which  are  sometimes 
sufficiently  long  to  carry  also  the  column-pipe,  the  whole  frame  being 
mounted  on  rollers,  or  otherAvise  guided,  and  arranged  for  hoisting,  by 
means  of  tackle  or  engines,  when  the  pump  is  submerged  and  requires 
repairs. 

2.8.09.  Although  the  bucket  lift-pump  is  generally  used  for  opera- 
tion by  rods  in  sinking,  specially  designed  sinking  plunger-pumps  are 
also  occasionally  employed  where  there  is  no  danger  of  being  drowned 
out,  or  where  the  pump  can  be  arranged  to  be  hauled  up  for  repairs. 
The  plunger  will  remain  tight  much  longer  than  the  bucket,  as  it  is  not 
exposed  to  wear  from  sand,  but  it  cannot  be  arranged  to  be  packed 
when  the  pump  is  under  water. 

2.3.10.  In  many  applications  of  the  rod-pumping  system  in  the 
present  practice  on  this  coast,  particularly  in  inclines,  and  in  places 
where  lift  pumps  would  be  subject  to  excessive  wear,  direct-acting  sink- 
ing-pumps, operated  by  steam  or  compressed  air,  are  used.  Such 
pumps  are  described  in  the  chapter  on  "  Direct- Acting  Pumps." 

2.3.11.  Sinking-Rod.  In  the  regular  Cornish  system  the  sinking- 
pump  is  operated  from  a  bracket  bolted  to  the  main  pumprod,  as  de- 
scribed in  2.2.04  and  2.2.22,  and  illustrated  by  Figs.  57,  58,  and  59. 
The  sinking-rod  is  clamped  to  the  bracket  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can 
be  quickly  loosened,  lowered,  and  secured  again,  as  sinking  proceeds. 
The  sections  of  the  pumprod,  except  the  topmost  one,  should  be  short, 
so  that  they  can  be  easily  handled,  and  all  should  be  of  equal  length; 
then,  knowing  the  number  of  sections,  the  distance  to  the  bucket  can  be 
quickly  figured  out  and  its  position  in  the  pump-barrel  determined. 
(See  also  2.3.16.)  The  rod  sections  not  in  use  are  generally  brought  to 
the  surface.  The  top  of  the  upper  section  of  the  rod  should  carry  a  bail 
or  ring  for  attaching  the  cable  to  raise  the  rod;  the  length  of  this  sec- 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


63 


iiii 


:'i'  ,ii 


ja..Ta!!l 


Fig.  84. 


Fig.  85. 


64 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


tion  should  be  sufficiently  greater  than  that  of  the  other  sections,  so  that 
one  of  these  with  its  joint  or  strapping-plates  can  be  inserted  below  the 
clamps,  when  the  top  of  the  upper  section  has  been  lowered  as  far  as 

the  clamp,  and  then  raised  so  as  to  admit  the  new  section 

below  it. 


t*Jmw/ 


alfet. 


2.3.12.  Column- Pipe.  The  discharge  from  the  column-pipe 
must  be  kept  sufficiently  high  above  the  top  of  the  station- 
tank  so  as  to  admit  of  lowering  for  some  distance,  before  it 
becomes  necessary  to  extend  the  column-pipe.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  column  is  made,  as  with  the  rod,  by  inserting  a 
section  of  pipe  below  the  discharge  top;  the  latter  is  made 
usually  of  galvanized  iron,  for  the  sake  of  lightness,  with  a 

lateral  branch,  generally  carrying 
a   canvas   hose,  leading   into   the 
station-tank  or  into  a  launder  con- 
nected with  it.     (See  Fig.  24.)     In 
order  to  save  time,  the  column-pipe 
is  usually  lengthened  whenever  a 
new  rod  section  is  inserted.     The 
amount  of  column  extension  to  be 
made    at   one   time    is    generally 
much  less  than  the  length  of  a  full  section  of  pipe;  it  is, 
therefore,  necessary  to  insert,  for  the  first  section,  a  shorter 
piece,  which  is  to  be  taken  out  and  replaced  by  a  longer  one, 
or  by  a  full  section  at  the  next  extension,  and  so  on,  the 
short  piece  being  put  in  and  taken  out  alternately.     In  order 
to  avoid  keeping  such  sections  on  hand,  and  also  to  reduce 
the  number  of  times  that  extensions  must  be  made,  the  dis- 
charge top  can  be  made  with  several  discharge  branches,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  86.     These  branches  have  flanges  for  bolting 
on  either  a  blind  flange  or  a  thimble  carrying  the  discharge- 
hose.     At  first  the  discharge  takes  place  at  the  lowest  branch; 
and  when,  in  lowering,  this  has  reached  the  level  of  the  top 
of  the  station-tank,  the  discharge-hose  is  taken   off   and 
fixed  to  the  next  higher  branch,  while  the  lower  branch  is 
closed  by  a  blank  flange.     By  making  the  discharge  top 
sufficiently  long,  the  column  can  be  lowered  a  considerable 
distance,  before  it  becomes  necessary  to  extend  it. 

2.3.13.  In  some  recent  lift  sinking-pumps  for  deep  verti- 
cal shafts,  the  sinking-rod  in  the  column-pipe  is  not  operated 
from  the  main  rod,  but  by  means  of  a  wire  cable  from  a 
geared  engine  at  the  surface,  which  also  serves  as  pump-hoist. 
(See  2.2.63  and  2.3.02.)  In  one  arrangement  referred  to,  the 
entire  length  of  both  the  pumprod  and  column-pipe  is  never 
reduced,  the  pump  and  column  being  lowered  as  a  whole. 
Each  section  of  the  column-pipe  has  a  lateral  discharge 
branch,  as  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  All  of  the 
branches  below  the  one  discharging  into  the  station-tank  of 
the  next  higher  pump  are  necessarily  closed  by  blank  flanges.  As  the 
column-pipe  is  lowered,  the  higher  branches  are  successively  used  as 
discharge-pipes.  The  arrangement  described  admits  of  rapid  manipu- 
lation in  sinking,  and  is  well  suited  for  this  purpose.     Wire  ropes  are, 


Fig.  86. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  65 

however,  on  account  of  their  elasticity,  not  to  be  recommended  for 
operating  fixed  pumps  in  permanent  installations. 

2.3.14.  Pumps  operated  by  rods  or  ropes  are  sometimes  used  for  sink- 
ing, when  the  other  shaft  pumns  are  direct-acting  steam  or  compressed- 
air  pumps. 

2.3.15.  The  column-pipe,  or  at  least  the  upper  part  of  it,  must  be 
guided  in  its  descent  in  the  shaft.  The  guides  are  usually  wooden 
pieces,  cut  out  to  fit  the  pipe,  and  bolted  to  or  wedged  against  the  shaft 
timbering  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be  separated  in  order  to  allow 
flanges  to  pass. 

2.3.16.  Pump-Barrel.  The  pump-barrel  is  generally  considerably 
longer  than  required  for  the  stroke  of  the  bucket,  so  that  the  latter  need 
not  always  be  lowered  whenever  the  pump  is  lowered  a  moderate  amount. 
Some  lift  pumps  have  a  stop  at  the  lower  end  of  the  barrel,  formed  by  the 
reduced  opening  of  the  suction  clack-chamber,  Avhich  prevents  the  bucket 
from  dropping  into  the  chamber.  In  lowering  the  rod  this  stop  can 
serve  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  bucket.  (See  2.3.11.)  The  barrel 
is  usually  made  of  cast-iron,  and  being  bored  its  inner  surface  is  liable 
to  rapid  destruction  in  case  of  acid  water.  Brass  and  copper  linings  are 
sometimes  used  where  the  water  is  very  bad.  The  barrels  of  sinking 
lift-pumps  are  also  subject  to  great  wear  from  grit  in  the  water. 

2.3.17.  Suction-Pipe  and  Strainer.  As  described  in  2.3.05,  the  suc- 
tion-pipe is  either  a  rigid,  heavy  casting  bolted  to  the  pump,  which  is 
supported  by  it  on  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  or  it  is  made  extensible 
after  the  manner  of  a  telescope,  or  it  consists  of  a  flexible  suction-hose, 
in  both  of  which  last-named  cases  the  pump  and  the  column-pipe  must 
be  supported,  when  not  being  lowered,  by  timbers  on  the  shaft  sets. 

2.3.18.  Fig.  81  illustrates  a  pump  with  a  rigid  suction-pipe.  It  is 
made  very  heavy,  so  as  not  to  fracture  under  the  blows  from  flying 
rock  when  blasting.  It  is  generally  further  protected  by  planks,  which 
cushion  the  blows  of  large  rocks.  Often  for  this  purpose  the  suction- 
pipe  or  -hose  is  permanently  wound  with  old  rope,  canvas,  or  similar 
material.  When  the  suction-pipe  is  heavy,  it  is  even  admissible  to  blast 
right  under  it.  The  bottom  is  shaped  to  a  rounded  point,  so  that  drills 
can  be  operated  close  under  the  suction.  The  strainer-holes  should  be 
conical,  with  the  larger  diameter  inside,  so  that  small  pieces  of  rock 
will  not  jam  into  the  openings.  It  is  well  to  have  two  or  three  larger 
openings,  ordinarily  closed  by  wooden  plugs,  for  getting  out  any  small 
pieces  of  rock  which  may  have  been  drawn  into  the  strainer, 

2.3.19.  The  suction  should  always  be  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  shaft, 
so  that  the  men  will  not  have  to  work  in  any  deeper  water  than  neces- 
sary. If  the  pumprod  is  long,  the  pump  with  column  and  rigid  suction 
can  be  swung  out  of  line  to  some  extent,  so  as  to  allow  placing  the  suc- 
tion in  the  most  advantageous  position  within  the  reach  of  the  deflec- 
tion.    (See  2.3.05.) 

2.3.20.  The  flexible  suction  has  the  advantage  that  the  suction  end, 
which  is  fitted  with  a  strainer,  can  be  moved  to  any  part  of  the  shaft 
bottom,  so  as  to  reach  the  lowest  point,  wherever  that  may  be  located. 
It  also  permits  placing  a  foot-valve  above  the  strainer,  which  is  an 
advantage  in  many  cases.  (See  3.2.05.)  Suction-hose  is  made  of  rubber, 
with  layers  of  canvas  between,  and  has  a  steel  or  iron  stiff ening-spiral 


66  MINE   DKAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

on  the  inside,  to  prevent  it  from  collapsing.     In  some  hose  the  spiral  is 
again  covered  inside  with  rubber,  to  prevent  corrosion. 

2.3.21.  The  suction  height  is  the  vertical  distance  from  the  bucket  to 
the  water-level  in  the  sump.  Its  admissible  maximum  is  much  less  in 
high  altitudes  than  at  sea-level.  High  speed  of  pumps,  narrow  and 
long  suction-pipes,  and  great  resistance  of  suction-valves  also  tend  to 
reduce  it. 

2.3.22.  If  the  water  carries  much  sand,  it  is  well  to  make  the  suction- 
pipe  large,  for  then  the  velocity  of  flow  will  be  reduced,  and  less  sand 
will  be  drawn  into  the  pump. 

2.3.23.  If  the  water  in  the  sump  is  lowered,  so  that  the  upper  strainer- 
holes  are  exposed,  these  are  plugged  up  by  the  men  working  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  shaft.  Small  quantities  of  air  entering  in  this  manner  find 
their  way  through  the  valves  into  the  column-pipe.  If  too  much  air 
has  been  drawn  in,  so  that  the  pump  loses  its  suction,  it  must  be  primed, 
or  the  sump-water  must  be  allowed  to  accumulate  to  such  a  depth  that 
the  pump  will  prime  itself.  This  it  will  do  the  more  readily,  the  less 
the  volume  of  the  space  between  the  suction-valve  and  the  bucket  in  its 
lowest  position  as  compared  with  the  volume  of  the  pump  displacement, 
because  the  air  will  be  the  more  rarified  the  greater  the  ratio  of  these 
two  volumes.  Self-priming  will  also  be  the  more  readily  accomplished 
the  smaller  the  suction  lift  as  compared  with  the  barometric  head. 

2.3.24.  Suction- Valves.  The  suction-valves  of  sinking-pumps  are 
often  at  a  considerable  height  above  the  water-level  in  the  sump;  it  is 
therefore  important  that  they  should  open  easily,  as  the  available 
amount  of  overpressure  beneath,  tending  to  open  them,  may  be  only 
slight.  Light  valves  naturally  open  more  readily  than  heavy  ones,  and 
small  valves  can  be  made  more  than  proportionally  lighter  than  large 
ones,  so  that  the  use  of  multiple  valves  would  be  of  advantage  in  this 
respect.  (See  1.3.20  and  1.3.21.)  Multiple  valves  cannot  well  be 
designed  to  admit  of  hauling  up  through  the  column-pipe,  but  this  is 
not  generally  provided  for  in  modern  plants,  as  direct-acting  steam 
sinking-pumps  or  large  bailing-tanks  can  generally  be  used  in  case  of 
emergency. 

2.3.25.  Suction-valves  of  sinking-pumps  should  be  so  constructed 
that  they  may  last  and  remain  tight  for  as  long  a  time  as  possible. 
They  should,  however,  be  readily  accessible  to  facilitate  repairing  when 
needed.  The  suction-valves  are  generally  single  or  double  clack-valves. 
The  valve-chambers  are  made  as  described  in  1.3.02  and  illustrated  in 
Fig.  48.  They  are  often  made  extra  heavy,  to  admit  of  their  being 
brought  down  closer  to  the  sump,  where  they  are  more  subject  to  the 
effects  of  blasting.  Extra  clack-chambers,  with  valves  in  place,  and 
also  suction-pipes,  should  be  on  hand  and  in  readiness  to  replace  broken 
ones  with  the  least  possible  delay.  Steel  cast  valve-chambers  have 
recently  come  into  use.  They  can  be  made  much  lighter,  and  at  the 
same  time  are  less  liable  to  breakage,  than  those  made  of  cast-iron.  The 
greater  lightness  of  steel  doors  facilitates  their  handling  when  changing 
valves. 

2.3.26.  Buckets.  Lift-pump-buckets  should  be  so  arranged  that  they 
give  the  greatest  possible  area  for  the  passage  of  water  through  them  on 
the  down-stroke,  and  they  should  fit  the  barrel  as  closely  as  possible. 
When  much  sand  is  carried  into   the   pump-barrel,  the  buckets  have 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC. 


67 


sometimes  to  be  taken  out  and  fitted  with  new  packing  every  few  hours. 
The  valve  in  the  bucket  is  generally  either  a  clack  or  a  straight-lift 
valve.  Conical  flexible  valves  have  been  used,  but  are  suitable  for  only 
low  lifts;  they  are  extensively  used  in  hand  pumps.  Leather  is  the 
most  common  material  for  packing  the  body  of  the  bucket  against  the 
pump-barrel.  It  is  so  arranged  that  the  pressure  of  the  water  will 
force  the  leather  against  the  bore  of  the  barrel  during  the  up-stroke. 
Fig.  87  illustrates  a  common  form  of  lift-pump-bucket.  The  ends  of 
the  leather  forming  the  ring  are  beveled  off  and  riveted  together  by 


0 


J 1 


Fig.  87. 


copper  rivets.  The  leather  should  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  should 
present  the  flesh  side  as  wearing  surface,  so  that  the  more  compact,  hair 
side,  which  holds  the  leather  together,  will  remain  intact.  It  is  best  to 
soak  the  leather  in  tallow  for  some  time  before  using.  The  packing  is 
held  in  place  by  the  taper-bored  ring  a,  secured  by  a  follower  and  key. 
The  body  of  the  bucket  is  made  either  of  cast-iron  or  brass.  The  yoke 
by  which  it  is  connected  with  the  rod,  and  the  bevel  ring  and  follower, 
and  generally  the  valve  also,  are  of  wrought-iron. 

2.3.27.  The  bucket  should  be  quickly  detachable  from  the  rod,  and 
it  must  be  possible  to  immediately  replace  it  by  another,  so  that  the 
pump  need  not  long  remain  idle.  The  bucket  taken  out  should  be 
repaired  and  kept  in  readiness  for  going  into  the  pump  when  in  turn 
the  one  in  place  requires  repairs.     This  can  always  be  seen  by  the 


68 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


decreased  quantity  of  water  delivered  by  the  pump,  and  the  sinking  of 
the  water-level  in  the  tank  supplied  by  the  sinking-pump.  Key  con- 
nections to  the  end  of  the  rod,  as  shown  in  Fig,  87,  are  inconvenient  to 
get  at  when  taking  off  the  bucket  at  the  pump,  and  often  require  much 
time  to  loosen.  The  connection  shown  in  Fig.  88  is  a  very  convenient 
form  for  this  purpose.  The  tapering  sleeve,  which  surrounds  the  spear- 
head and  claw,  remains  in  place  simply  by  its  weight. 

2.3.28.  Much  trouble  was  experienced  in  the 
Comstock  mines,  Nevada,  on  account  of  the  rapid 
wear  of  lift-pump-buckets.  While,  in  many  in- 
stances, the  Cornish  sinking-pumps  were  entirely 
discarded  and  replaced  by  direct-acting  pumps, 
worked  by  compressed  air,  in  others,  new  forms 
of  lift-pump-buckets  were  adopted.  One  form  of 
these  buckets,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  88,  was  con- 
structed without  any  packing  whatever,  it  being 
simply  made  to  a  reasonable  fit  and  very  long,  so 
that  sufficient  resistance  to  leakage  past  its  pe- 
riphery would  be  established.  Grooves  were  also 
turned  in  its  surface,  but  their  efficiency  in  helping 
to  reduce  leakage  is  doubtful.  The  body  of  the 
bucket  was  in  some  instances  about  4'  long.  The 
valve  was  a  simple,  straight-lift  valve.  These 
buckets  are  said  to  have  worked  satisfactorily  for  a 
much  longer  time  than  those  of  the  older  form. 
The  bucket  is  the  weak  point  of  the  lift  pump;  its 
packing  wears  out  rapidly  in  mining  use.  In  order 
to  be  able  to  remove  it  and  substitute  another 
bucket,  while  the  pump  is  submerged,  it  must  be 
possible  to  draw  it  up  with  the  rod  through  the 
column-pipe,  and  the  latter  must,  therefore,  be  of 
sufficient  diameter  to  admit  of  its  passage.  If  the 
bucket  is  to  be  taken  out  or  repaired  through  the 
door  in  the  chamber  over  the  pump-barrel,  the 
column-pipe  must  first  be  emptied  of  all  its  water. 
In  the  ordinary  form  of  jackhead  lift-pump,  the 
bucket  can  be  gotten  at  without  emptying  the 
column-pipe. 

2.3.29.  A  small  pipe  is  usually  placed  by  the 


:m:M: 


_^[/Z  iMhes* 


Fig. 


side  of  the  pump,  as  in  Fig.  81,  which,  on  turn- 
ing the  cock  a,  and  thereby  opening  communica- 
tion between  the  column-pipe  and  the  space  between  the  bucket  and 
suction-valve,  permits  the  charging  of  the  pump.  This  cock  should  be 
placed  down  at  the  lowest  part  of  that  space,  so  that  any  sand  carried 
into  the  pump  can  be  periodically  blown  out.  The  other  cock  is  for 
letting  the  water  out  of  either  the  pump-barrel  or  the  column-pipe.  By 
connecting  it  with  a  float  in  the  sump  in  such  a  manner  that  the  cock 
is  opened  and  lets  water  out  of  the  column  when  the  sump  water-level 
falls  below  a  certain  point,  a  means  could,  if  desirable,  be  obtained  for 
keeping  the  pump  charged  and  working,  even  when  it  runs  faster  than 
necessary  to  keep  down  the  water. 

2.8.30.     Fiston  Sinking -Pumps.     Mr.  S.  N.  Knight,  of  Sutter  Creek, 
Cal.,  has  built  sinking-pumps  with  solid  pistons,  in  which  the  work  is 


MINE   DKAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC.  69 

done  on  the  down-stroke,  the  pump  really  operating  like  a  plunger 
pump.  Its  construction  appears  from  Fig.  89.  The  pumprod  is  here 
subjected  to  compression  instead  of  tension,  and  must,  therefore,  be 
very  well  guided.  It  requires  comparatively  little  repairing  for  a  sink- 
ing-pump, as  the  course  of  the  water  is  not  through  the  piston.  This 
pump,  like  the  jackhead,  is  more  difficult  to  support  in  a  vertical  shaft, 
and  it  requires  more  room  than  the  ordinary  single-axis  lift  pump. 
This  construction  has  many  features  to  recommend  its  use  in  inclines, 
and  ought  to  be  preferable,  in  most  cases,  to  the  jackhead.  The  work 
being  done  on  the  down-stroke  has  also  the  advantage  that  less  counter- 
balance is  required  for  the  main  rod.  The  piston  must  not  quite  reach 
to  the  top  of  the  barrel  at  the  upper  end  of  the  stroke,  so  that  there  may 
always  be  a  quantity  of  water  on  top  of  the  piston,  which  will  seal  it  if 
leaky,  and  prevent  the  influx  of  air  on  the  suction-stroke,  while  the 
escape  of  air  past  the  piston  on  the  working-stroke  would  not  be 
obstructed  by  the  water.  The  pump  illustrated  was  constructed  with 
its  valve-chambers  and  other  large  castings  of  steel.  This  makes  possi- 
ble a  lighter  construction  and  admits  of  a  somewhat  more  compact 
arrangement. 

2.3.31.  Admissible  Lift  of  Sinking-Pumps.  The  lift  of  a  sinking- 
pump  increases  as  the  shaft  goes  down,  until  it  becomes  necessary  to  re- 
lieve it  by  placing  a  fixed  plunger  pump  with  tank-station  in  the  shaft. 
When  this  plunger  is  ready  for  operation,  but  not  before,  the  sinking- 
rod  is  detached  from  its  connection  to  the  main  rod  above  the  next 
higher  plunger  pump,  the  rod  and  column-pipe  shortened  by  taking  out 
the  sections  between  the  top  and  bottom  pieces,  and  the  rod  clamped  to 
the  main  rod  above  the  new  plunger  pump,  while  the  discharge  of  the 
column-pipe  is  diverted  into  the  tank  of  that  pump.  The  lift  pump 
must  therefore  be  capable  of  working,  at  least  for  a  part  of  the  time, 
against  a  head  a  little  greater  than  the  highest  head  under  which  any 
of  the  plungers  in  the  shaft  are  working.  In  exceptional  cases  lift 
pumps  have  worked  against  a  head  of  over  300'.  Unless  absolutely 
necessary,  however,  a  head  of  200'  should  not  be  greatly  exceeded. 

2.3.32.  The  extreme  lift  of  sinking-pumps  is  quite  often  kept  within 
moderate  limits  by  dividing  the  total  sinking-lift  between  two  pumps 
working  in  a  series,  so  that  the  lower  pump  raises  to  a  small  tank  fixed 
around  the  suction-pipe  of  the  upper  pump.  In  this  arrangement  the 
upper  pump  is  not  put  into  operation  until  the  limit  allowed  for  the 
lower,  or  sinking-pump  proper,  is  reached.  The  lower  pump  usually 
advances  as  the  shaft  goes  down,  while  the  upper  one  is  temporarily 
fixed  and  lowered  only  at  intervals.  The  latter  is  usually  also  a  lift 
pump  of  the  same  pattern  as  the  lower  one,  so  that  either  pump  can, 
in  case  of  emergency,  be  used  for  sinking.  If  anything  happens  to  the 
lower  pump  and  it  is  drowned  out,  the  upper  one  can  be  lowered  and 
used  under  increased  lift  until  the  lower  pump  can  be  drawn  up  and 
repaired.  In  the  same  way,  if  the  upper  pump  is  disabled,  the  lower 
one  can  have  its  column-pipe  extended  to  increase  its  lift,  so  as  to 
include  that  of  the  upper. 

2.3.33.  An  interesting  sinking  operation  described  by  Professor 
Riedler,  in  the  Zeitschrift  des  Vereins  Deutscher  Ingenieure,  Vol. 
XXXVI,  No.  16,  1892,  was  carried  out  in  1889-90,  in  bringing  down 
the  Max  shaft  of  the  "  Prague  Iron  Industrial  Company,"  in  Kladno, 


70 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


Fig.  89. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC,  71 

Bohemia.  Riedler  steam  pumps  were  used  for  the  permanent  installa- 
tion, and  the  extreme  sinking-lift  came  to  about  475'.  Two  sinking-lift 
pumps  of  Karlick's  patent  (which  will  be  described  presently)  were 
used  in  series,  after  the  manner  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
The  extreme  lift  allowed  for  each  of  these  pumps  was  200',  so  that  a 
depth  of  400'  could  be  sunk  by  their  combination.  The  remaining  75' 
was  overcome  by  the  use  of  a  Hall  pulsometer.  By  this  arrangement, 
the  most  wasteful  machine  in  the  use  of  steam — the  pulsometer— was 
detailed  to  do  the  lesser  part  of  the  work,  while  at  the  same  time  its 
heating  effect  was  removed  far  from  where  the  men  worked  in  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft.  A  steam  sinking-pump  would  doubtless  have  been 
better  than  a  pulsometer. 

2.3.34.  The  Karlick  sinking-pump,  illustrated,  with  its  sinking-frame, 
in  Fig.  83,  consists  of  an  ordinary  English  lift  pump  with  the  pumprod 
inside  of  the  column-pipe.  The  latter  is  constructed  as  described  in 
2.3.13,  the  sections  each  having  a  nozzle,  which  can  be  used  as  discharge 
or  closed  by  a  blind  flange  bolted  on.  In  sinking,  except  when  doing 
so  from  the  surface,  the  sections  of  the  column-pipe  always  remain  con- 
nected with  the  pumps,  the  water  being  discharged  first  at  the  lowest 
nozzle,  which  is  opened  for  the  purpose.  As  the  pump  goes  down,  the 
next  higher  nozzle  is  connected  with  the  discharge-hose,  and  the  lower 
nozzle  is  closed.  In  this  manner  very  little  time  was  lost  through  stop- 
pages. The  bucket-rods  of  the  pumps  extended  only  a  little  beyond 
the  top  of  the  column-pipe,  and  were  there  operated  each  by  a  wire  rope 
from  bobs  at  the  surface.  The  weight  of  the  pumprod  and  bucket  kept 
the  rope  taut  on  the  down-stroke.  The  ropes  were  clamped  to  links 
hinged  to  the  bob-nose,  so  that  they  could  be  quickly  loosened,  lowered, 
and  secured  again  as  the  sinking  went  on.  The  pumprod  sections  were 
never  disconnected,  except  for  repairs.  Breakages  of  ropes,  when  they 
did  occur,  were  quickly  repaired  by  means  of  clamps.  The  pumps  were 
made  of  steel  castings  in  order  to  secure  lightness, 

2.3.35.  By  arranging  the  pumps  with  guides  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance above  them,  they  could  be  raised  when  drowned  out,  and  an 
additional  safeguard  against  the  entire  flooding  of  the  mine  was  thus 
obtained. 

2.3.36.  The  system  of  sinking  just  described  deserves  a  wider  appli- 
cation, on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the  different  manipulations 
may  be  carried  out. 

2.3.37.  Volumetric  Effect  of  Lift  Pumps.  Owing  to  the  wear  of  pump- 
barrel  and  bucket-packing,  and  the  consequent  leakage,  lift  pumps  at 
low  speeds  raise  a  smaller  quantity  of  water  than  that  due  to  the  volume 
displacement  of  the  bucket.  At  high  piston  speed  the  leakage  is  less  in 
proportion  to  the  volume  displacement,  and  the  latter  is  more  nearly 
approached  by  the  quantity  of  water  raised,  particularly  in  the  common 
lift  pump,  where  the  energy  of  motion  of  the  water  assists  in  its  own 
advancement,  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  that  the  quantity  of  water 
actually  raised  exceeds  by  several  per  cent  that  due  to  the  volume  swept 
through  by  the  bucket.  But  when  ordinary  pumps  are  run  in  this 
manner,  their  operation  is  generally  accompanied  by  severe  shocks,  and 
the  pumping  is  done  with  less  efficiency  and  with  less  security  against 
breakdowns. 

6 — MD 


72 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

» 

Plunger  Pumps. 

2.4.01.  It  has  already  been  stated  in  1.1.04  that  plungers  are  more 
easily  packed,  admit  of  pumping  against  higher  heads,  and  remain  tight 
much  longer  than  buckets  or  pistons,  and  that  they  are  much  less  sub- 
ject to  wear,  since  the 
rubbing  surfaces  are 
located  at  such  a  point 
that  very  little  of  the 
sand  usually  carried  by 
the  water  will  reach 
them.  The  objection 
that  they  cannot  be 
packed  under  water, 
applies  only  where  they 
are  liable  to  be  drowned 
out.  The  use  of  plungers 
also  admits  of  equaliz- 
ing partially  or  entirely 
the  work  on  the  up-  and 
the  down-strokes,  so 
that  much  less  counter- 
balance will  be  required 
than  if  lift  pumps  only 
were  used.  (See  2.1.04 
and  2.2.43  et  seq.) 

2.4.02.  For  these  rea- 
sons, the  pumps  of  the 
Cornish  system,  with 
the  exception  generally 
of  the  lowest,  or  sink- 
ing-pump, 
as  plunger  pumps 


im 


'i?ii' 


^1^1 


are  designed 


Fig.  90. 


2.4.03.  Relative  Ar- 
rangements of  Parts.  A 
usual  type  of  plunger 
pump  for  a  vertical 
shaft  is  shown  in  Fig.  90.  The  disposition  of  valves  in  relation  to  the 
working-barrel  is  the  one  which  long  experience  has  demonstrated  to 
be  the  most  convenient.  This  pump  can  also  be  used  in  an  incline. 
The  clack-chambers  can  then  either  be  placed  on  top  or  at  the  side,  in 
which  latter  case,  however,  the  clacks  will  have  to  be  turned  around 
90°.  Where  straight-lift  valves  are  used  in  an  inclined  pump,  the  valve- 
chambers  should  be  placed  in  a  vertical  position. 

2.4.04.  Plungers.  These  are  generally  made  of  cast-iron,  though 
brass  is  a  better  material,  as  it  works  through  the  packing  with  much 
less  friction  than  iron.  Sometimes,  therefore,  the  plungers  are  made  of 
or  lined  with  brass.  Brass  also  resists  better  the  action  of  acid  water. 
Thick  grease  will  protect  cast-iron  plungers  to  some  extent,  if  the  water 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC 


Fig. 


is  not  too  warm  to  melt   the 

grease   and   float   it  off.      The 

plungers  are  properly  formed 

with  a  rounded,  point-shaped 

bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig.  90,  so 

as  to  reduce  shocks  on  striking 

the  water  in  the  barrel,  in  case 

the  pump  does  not  quite  fill  on 

the  suction-stroke.     The  top  is 

formed  with  a  flange,  which  is 

bolted   to    a    bracket   that    is 

clamped  to  the  pumprod.     Fig. 

91    shows     such     a     bracket. 

Where  two  pumps  are  attached  ^ 

at  opposite  sides  of  the  rod  the 

clamping-plates   are  dispensed 

with    and    two    such   brackets 

held  in  place  by  the  same  bolts. 

Clamping  the  brackets  to  the 

rod  insures  their  adjustalnlity. 

It  may  also  permit  a  ruptured 

rod  to  slip  through  the  clamp 

under  the  severe  strain  due  to 

the  fall,  and  bv  slipping  prevent  injury  to  the  pump. 

(See  2.2.29-2.2.34.)     Where  the  lift  is  so  small  as  to 

only  require  a  single  plunger  pump,  the  plunger  is 

attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  rod,  and  in  line  with 

it,  by  a  split  socket  casting,  as  shown  in  Fig.  92.     The 

plungers  of  inclined  pumps  are  subject  to  one-sided 

wear,  which  makes  it  hard  to  keep  them  tight  and  hold 

the  leakage  down  to  an  allowable  amount. 

2.4.05.  Stuffing-Boxes.  The  stuffing-box  for  pack- 
ing the  plunger  is  generally  cast  separate  from  and 
bolted  to  the  top  of  the  pump-barrel,  as  in  Fig.  90. 
The  usual  packing  consists  of  square  braids  of  hemp, 
flax,  or  cotton,  soaked  in  tallow,  Albany  compound, 
or  a  mixture  of  tallow  with  beeswax.  For  cold  water 
braids  of  flax,  thoroughly  impregnated  with  Albany 
compound,  give  good  results.  The  wasting  of  the  com- 
pound should  be  made  up  by  periodically  smearing 
some  on  the  plunger.  For  hot  water  this  packing  is 
not  suitable,  as  the  compound  becomes  too  fluid  and 
is  carried  off  by  the  water  very  rapidly.  Square 
braids  of  cotton  impregnated  with  powdered  plum- 
bago work  very  well  in  the  hot  water.  The  braids 
should  be  put  in  in  level  layers,  not  wovmd  around 
in  the  form  of  a  spiral.  For  such  and  other  packing 
of  a  fibrous  nature,  the  bottom  of  the  stuffing-box 
and  gland  are,  with  advantage,  made  in  a  grooved 
form,  as  shown  in  Fig.  93,  for  by  such  construction  i^ 
fibers  will  be  less  liable  to  be  dragged  along  by  the 


E    ; 


E 


E 


3> 


*^ 


jZIfel-. 


Fig.  92. 


74 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


plunger  and  forced  between  it  and  the  metal  of  the  stuffing-box,  thereby 
causing  one-sided  wear  of  the  plunger.  The  gland,  for  vertical  pumps, 
should  be  cast  with  an  annular  bead,  forming  a  cup  to  surround  the 
plunger  and  keep  the  grease  from  spreading.  This  cup,  by  being  filled 
with  grease  and  water,  also  prevents  air  from  being  drawn  in  through 
the  stuffing-box  on- the  suction-stroke. 

2.4.06.  Ordinary  stuffing-boxes  generally  cause  considerable  friction, 
because  they  are  drawn  up  too  tight.  They  should  be  drawn  up  just 
enough  to  permit  a  little  leakage.  In  screwing  up  the  gland,  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  it  true  with  the  plunger.  Plungers  wear 
I — ^,^_^^^  unevenly,  and  when  it  is  attempted  to  pre- 

>^^^;,^  vent  leakage   by  screwing   up   the   packing, 

^^^  the   friction    becomes   excessive.     When    the 

plungers  are  so  worn,  they  should  be  replaced 
by  spare  ones  kept  on  hand.  Those  taken  out 
should  then  be  trued  up  and  kept  ready  ior 
putting  in  again.  As  they  are  reduced  in 
size  by  repeated  truing-up,  the  stuffing-boxes 
become  too  wide  for  the  plungers,  and  they, 
or  their  linings,  must  be  replaced  by  new  ones, 
2.4.07.  With  large  pumps  in  inclines,  the 
stuffing-boxes  give  a  great  deal  of  trouble, 
because  the  heavy  plunger  presses  on  the 
packing  on  one  side  only.     (See  2.4.04.) 


Fig.  93. 


2.4.08.  Pump-Barrel.  Where,  as  in  the 
ordinary  designs,  the  connection  to  the  valve- 
chambers  is  about  mid-height  of  the  barrel, 
the  part  below  the  connection  should  have  a 
cross-section  area  equal  to  about  twice  that 
of  the  plunger,  as  in  Fig.  90,  so  that  the  water 
can  flow  freely  along  the  plunger  during  the 
lower  half  of  its  stroke,  to  fill  or  empty  the 
space  swept  through  by  it. 

2.4.09.  With  the  connection  to  valve- 
chambers  below  the  top  of  the  barrel,  air  will 
accumulate  in  the  upper  part.   For  this  reason 

pumps  sometimes  have  the  connection  at  the  upper  end  of  the  barrel. 
But  this  makes  an  inconvenient  form  to  support  and  place  in  an  accessi- 
ble manner  in  the  shaft.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to  provide  a  small  pipe- 
connection  from  the  highest  part  of  the  pump-barrel  to  the  column-pipe. 
On  the  working-stroke,  water  will  be  forced  through  this  connection 
into  the  column-pipe,  while  on  the  suction-stroke  some  water  will  flow 
back  into  the  barrel.  The  pipe-connection  should  therefore  be  provided 
with  a  cock  to  regulate  the  amount  of  opening,  and  to  close  it  in  case 
the  suction-valve  has  to  be  inspected.  A  small  check-valve  would  pre- 
vent the  back-flow  of  the  water,  but  in  order  to  be  operative  it  should 
open  easier  than  the  main  discharge-valve.  Some  air  generally  escapes 
through  the  leaky  stuffing-box,  and  many  pumps  are  therefore  made 
without  the  aforesaid  connections. 

2.4.10.  A  cock  to  let  out  the  air  on  filling  the  pump  must  also  be 
fitted  to  the  top  of  the  barrel,  as  stated  in  1.1.12  and  1.1.13,  where  the 
manner  of  starting  and  priming  pumps  is  described. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


2.4.11.     Near  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  there  should  be  a  hand-hole, 
or  a  nipple  with  valve,  to  clean  out  accumulated  sediment. 

2.4.12.  Valves  and  Valve-Chamhers.  The 
valves  and  their  chambers  are  generally 
superposed  as  in  Fig.  90.  Single  or  double 
clack  valves  are  most  generally  used  on  this 
coast.     The  advantages  of   multiple,  light, 


spring-loaded  valves  have  been  pointed 
out  in  1.3.21.  A  pipe,  as  in  Fig.  94,  must 
be  arranged  at  the  side  of  the  chambers, 
with  valve-connections  to  the  space  above 
each  valve,  and  a  waste-connection  to  the 
station-tank  or  to  the  suction-pipe.  The 
connections  above  the  valves  should  be 
placed  as  low  as  possible,  so  that  they 
may  serve  to  draw  off  sediment.  A  cock  operated  by  a  float  in  the 
station-tank  is  generally  also  placed  in  the  pipe  connecting  the  spaces 
above  the  valves.     The  arrangement  of  pipe  and  valves  serves  to  regu- 


76 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


late  the  relative  capacity  of  a  series  of  pumps,  according  to  the  varying 
duty  at  each  station,  and  it  also  serves  for  priming  the  pump  or  empty- 
ing the  column-pipe  when  necessary. 

2.4.13.  For  handling  the  heavy  valve-chamber  doors,  when  access  to 
the  valves  becomes  necessary,  a  hook,  vertically  adjustable 
by  a  screw-connection,  and  suspended  from  a  roller  travel- 
ing on  a  bar,  either  fixed  or  capable  of  swinging  in  a 
horizontal  plane,  is  generally  provided.  Fig.  94  illustrates 
an  arrangement  of  this  kind.     (See  1.3.22  et  scq.) 

2.4.14.  Connection  to  Supply-Tank.  In  most  cases  the 
suction-pipe  runs  only  horizontally,  and  connects  directly  to 
the  side  of  the  station-tank  or  reservoir,  as  in  Fig.  94  or  95. 
Where,  like  in  Fig.  96,  the  pump  is  placed  at  a  distance 
below  the  tank,  the  suction-pipe  turns  upward,  and  is  con- 

1  *,    nected  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank.     In  either 
case  the  horizontal  portion  of  the 
suction-pipe  should  have  a  flexible 
part  inserted,  to  admit  of  unequal 


I 


^        Id    S|^ 


W 


settling  of  the  pump  and  tank.  This 
flexible  part  consists  usually  of  a  piece 
of  heavy  rubber  suction-hose,  with  in- 
ternal metal  rings,  and  longitudinal 
strips  to  keep  them  in  place,  the  ends 
of  the  hose  being  held  by  clamps., to 
thimbles,  as  in  Fig.  97,  having  flanges  for  connection  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  suction-pipe.  A  couple  of  layers  of  can- 
vas coated  with  pitch  are  often  used  inside  of  the  rubber  "'p 
hose,  as  a  protection  for  the  latter.  It  is  also  best  to  wrap 
the  hose  with  tarred  marlin,  particularly  where  it  has  to 
withstand  considerable  pressure,  as  when  the  suction  is 
arranged  like  in  Fig.  96.  It  is  evident  that  the  suction-pipe  must  be 
air-tight.  The  end  connected  to  the  tank  should  be  a  little  above  the 
tank  floor,  to  prevent  sediment  from  being  drawn  into  the  pump.  'A 
strainer  of  ample  area  should  form  an  extension  of  the  pipe  inside  the 
tank,  and  should  be  removable  for  cleaning.  The  tank  end  of  the  pipe 
is  sometimes  flared  out  to  a  larger  diameter,  so  that  the  water  will  enter 
with  less  current,  and  therefore  not  sweep  in  so  much  sediment.     It  is 


"'".'J.' 


Fig.  96. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC. 


77 


also  a  good  plan  to  arrange  the  end  of  the  pipe  with  a  tight  cover,  which, 
when  the  pump  is  working,  is  left  off,  but  which  can  be  closed  when  it 
is  desirable  to  drain  the  pump  for  inspection,  without  also  draining  the 
tank. 

2.4.15.  Supply-  or  Station- Tanks.  Where  the  station  is  in  hard,  self- 
supporting  ground,  requiring  no  timbering  to  support  the  roof,  a  reser- 
voir can  be  made  by  lining  the  bottom  part  of  the  excavation  up  to 
water-level  with  cement,  and  throwing  up  a  small  masonry  dam  in 
front.  Generally,  however,  the  stations  have  to  be  timbered,  and  then 
wooden  tanks  are  set  up,  as  in  Figs.  94  and  95.  It  is  advantageous  to 
have  the  tanks  of  large  capacity,  so  that  they  can  take  up  a  consider- 
able inflow  from  levels,  or  overflow  from  upper  tanks,  and  prevent  it 
from  reaching  the  sump. 

2.4.16.  The  water  from  the  lower  pumps  and  other  sources  should 
flow  into  the  tanks  quietly,  with  the  least  possible  disturbance  of  their 


t  ■<  bW  Hii  af 


£: 


i^j^-?/: 


Fig.  97. 

contents,  in  order  to  give  sand  and  mud  a  chance  to  settle.  Partitions 
in  the  tanks  are  useful  to  confine  the  bulk  of  the  sediment  to  those 
parts  where  the  water  enters,  and  keep  it  from  reaching  the  suction- 
pipes  of  the  pump.  A  drain  with  a  pipe  or  wooden  box  leading  to  the 
next  lowest  tank  serves  to  draw  off '  the  water  when  repairs  or  cleaning 
of  tanks  is  necessary.  There  should  be  draw-off  plugs  at  different 
levels,  so  that  the  water  can  be  drawn  off  without  disturbing  the  settled 
mud  and  sand.  This  can  best  be  removed  through  a  separate  plug  into 
a>small  tank  on  the  hoisting-cage,  and  brought  to  the  surface.  A  notch 
near  the  top  of  the  tank  must  also  connect  with  the  drain,  in  order  to 
divert  a  possible  overflow  into  the  next  lower  tank. 

2.4.17.  Pump  Supports.  The  foundations  of  Cornish  plunger  pumps 
operated  by  rods  consist  of  beams  or  arches  built  in  across  the  shaft. 
They  have  to  bear,  not  only  the  weight  of  pumps,  with  column-pipes 
and  water  contained  in  them,  but  they  are  also  subject  to  heavy, 
sudden  strains  from  water-ram,  on  which  account  they  should  possess, 
besides  strength,  a  certain  amount  of  elasticity,  so  as  to  better  resist 
shocks. 

2.4.18.  Smaller  pumps  can  generally  have  their  foundations  sup- 
ported directly  by  the  shaft  timbering,  the  load  being  distributed  over 
several  sets.     Very  small  pumps  are  only  bolted  to  the  sets  themselves. 


78 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


Fig.  98. 


being  provided  with  lugs  for 
this  purpose.  For  large  pumps, 
it  is  always  best  to  rest  the  sup- 
ports independently  on  solid 
ground,  outside  of  the  shaft 
timbering.  In  most  cases,  the 
supports  consist  of  wooden  or 
wrought-iron  beams  or  trusses. 
Cast-iron  girders  or  arches  are 
not  so  good.  These  may  be  used, 
however,  if  a  pedestal  of  a  more 
elastic  material  be  placed  be- 
tween them  and  the  pump. 
Where  the  nature  of  the  ground 
admits  of  it,  beam  supports  are 
preferred,  on  account  of  greater 
simplicity.  Masonry,  cast-iron, 
or  wooden  arches  are  some- 
times used  in  slaty  formations, 
or  where  the  ground  is  liable  to 
crumble  away  under  the  vertical 
pressure  of  beams  or  trusses, 
the  arch  supporting  the  ground 
by  its  principally  lateral  press- 
ure. Whether  beams  or  arches 
be  used,  the  excavations  for  the 
ends  or  counterforts  should  be 
cut  and  broken  out  by  hand,  not 
blasted,  so  as  not  to  shatter  the 
ground  too  much. 

2.4.19.  Pump  supports  of 
wood  are  generally  used  on  this 
coast.  The  simplest  support 
consists  of  a  pile  of  beams,  like 
that  shown  in  Fig.  94,  built 
across  the  shaft.  They  should 
be  firmly  supported  and  wedged 
in  at  the  ends,  to  prevent  their 
displacement.  A  cross-beam, 
usually  extending  into  the 
tank-station,  affords  ample  bear- 
ing-surface for  both  the  pump 
and  base  of  clack-chambers.  A 
simple  arrangement  like  the 
foregoing  can  be  used  where  a 
single  line  of  plungers  is  offset 
from  the  side  of  the  rod,  as 
shown  in  the  plan.  Where 
pumps  are  placed  at  opposite 
sides  of  the  rod,  two  piles  of 
beams  are  often  used,  as  in  Figs. 
98  and  95,  to  allow  the  rod  to 
pass  between  them.     Where  the 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC 


79 


space  at  the  side  away  from  the  tank-station  is  scant,  the  foundation 
beams  are  sometimes  placed  at  an  angle,  as  shown  in  plan  in  Fig.  99. 
In  some  cases,  where  good  supporting-ground  cannot  be  obtained  close  to 
the  shaft,  the  main  foundation  beams  have  to  be  of  considerable  length, 
and  might  thereby  become  too  elastic.  In  such  cases,  braces  can  be 
thrown  in  as  in  Fig.  100,  or  the  beam  can  be  constructed  as  a  truss,  like 
Fig.  101. 

2.4.20.     Sometimes  the  pumps  are  only  held  on  the  foundation  by 
their  own  weight  and  the  pressure  of  the  water-columns.     This  admits 


l^iW^ 


I'     fj'"'' 


Fig.  99. 


of  shifting  them  more  readily,  to  keep  them  in  line  if  the  shaft  be  in 
moving  ground.  It  is  always  best,  however,  to  bolt  or  clamp  the  pumps 
to  the  foundation.  The  upper  part  of  the  pump-barrel  is  usually  held 
to  the  shaft  timbering  by  clamps  or  strap-bolts,  to  prevent  its  lateral 
displacement. 

2.4.21.  Arrangement  of  Pump- Stations.  Excavations  for  tanks,  like 
those  for  balance-bobs,  should  always  extend  in  a  direction  opposite  to 
that  in  which  the  hoisting-compartments  are  located.  This  disposition 
leaves  the  ground  around  the  shaft  in  the  best  supported  condition. 

2.4.22.  Pump-compartments  of  timbered  shafts,  particularly  for  a 
double  line  of  pumps,  are  rarely  large  enough,  without  increasing  their 
size  at  the  stations,  to  admit  of  such  an  installation  of  pumps  as  to  give 
accessibility  to  every  part,  and  also  leave  room  in  the  shaft  for  lowering 


80 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


or  raising  parts  of  the  underground  machinery,  or  for  running  a  cage. 
The  pump-shafts  are,  therefore,  generally  enlarged  at  the  pump-station, 
as  in  Fig.  99. 

2.4.23.  Admissible  Lift  and  Plunger  Speed.  The  Cornish  type  of 
plunger  pump  is  rarely  used  for  lifts  above  250'.  About  200'  is  the 
usual  lift  allowed.     Lifts  of  400'  and  500'  occasionally  occur,  but  with 


^Lu 


_K IL 


Pig.  100. 


such  the  pumps  can  operate  only  at  a  very  much  reduced  speed,  and 
require,  therefore,  to  be  of  larger  size  to  handle  a  given  quantity  of 
water.  The  greater  the  lift,  the  slower  must  the  pumps  run  to  avoid 
too  severe  shocks.  Great  length  of  the  pumprod  and  column-pipes  also 
reduces  the  admissible  number  of  strokes.  (See  2.2.01.)  For  this 
reason,  inclined  pumps  cannot  be  run  as  fast  against  the  same  head  as 
pumps  of  the  same  size  in  a  vertical  shaft.  (See  1.2.38.)  The  longer 
the  stroke,  on  the  other  hand,  the  greater  is  the  admissible  plunger 
speed.  Cornish  plunger  pumps  are  usually  so  placed  that  the  water 
will  run  into  and  almost  fill  them  by  gravity.  The  height  above  sea- 
level  has,  therefore,  less  influence  on  the  working  of  Cornish  plungers 
than  on  that  of  lift  pumps. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


81 


2.4.24.  Relative  Size  of  a  Series  of  Plungers.  If  the  water  must  all 
be  lifted  from  the  sump  of  a  deep  mine,  requiring  several  superposed 
sets  of  pumps,  the  plungers  should  properly  increase  in  size  as  they  are 
nearer  the  bottom,  to  make  up  for  the  decreased  length  of  stroke  result- 
ing from  the  elasticity  of  the  pumprod.  Generally,  however,  the  pumps 
are  all  made  of  the  same  size,  so  that  the  parts  will  be  interchangeable. 


Ji 1£ 


jsfttt: 


Fig.  101. 

But,  since  plungers  and  stufhng-boxes  are  not  very  liable  to  breakage, 
these  could  be  made  of  the  proper  sizes,  and  the  valves,  valve-chambers, 
and  barrels  of  all  the  pumps  interchangeable.  Where  water  issues  at 
different  levels,  the  aim  should  be  to  adapt  the  sizes  of  the  correspond- 
ing pumps  to  the  water  to  be  handled  by  them. 

2.4.25.  Plunger  pumps  are  much  more  subject  to  breakage  than  lift 
pumps,  and  extra  parts  liable  to  be  broken,  such  as  clack-chambers  and 
pump-barrels,  should  be  kept  on  hand  where  severe  service  is  required 
of  the  pumps.  Such  parts,  as  was  stated  before,  are  now  often  made  of 
steel. 

2.4.26.  Before  placing  pumps  in  a  shaft,  a  careful  survey  of  it  should 
be  made,  in  order  to  determine  if  it  is  crooked  or  twisted  out  of  line,  and 


82  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

the  relative  position  in  plan  of  the  different  sections  should  then  be 
drawn  on  paper  and  compared  with  the  desired  arrangement  of  pumps, 
in  order  to  see  if  sufficient  space  is  available  for  installing  them.  After 
pumps,  rods,  and  pipes  are  in  place,  they  should  be  kept  carefully  in 
line. 

2.4.27.  It  is  desirable,  particularly  in  deep  mines,  to  have  space  in 
the  pump-compartment  for  running  a  small  cage,  in  order  to  enable  the 
pump-men  to  reach  rapidly  any  point  of  the  shaft.  The  ladders  which 
are  required  in  every  mine  are  also  placed  in  the  pump-compartment. 
The  space  allowed  for  the  cage  should  be  large  enough  to  admit  of 
lowering  the  largest  parts  of  the  underground  machinery.  As  the  rods 
and  column-pipes,  with  their  guides  and  stays,  take  up  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  shaft  area,  the  compartments  intended  for  Cornish  pumps 
require  to  be  of  large  size.  In  pumping-plants  for  moderate  depth  and 
capacity,  the  heavy  parts  are  generally  lowered  by  chain-blocks,  or  by 
winches,  operated  by  hand.  These  winches  are  also  often  used  for 
raising  and  lowering  the  sinking-pumps,  and  must  be  of  ample  strength 
for  the  purpose.  Hometimes,  however,  hand  winches  for  the  sinking- 
pumps  are  located  in  the  shaft  near  the  top  of  the  discharge-column. 

2.4.28.  Hand  winches  are  too  sIoav  for  the  largest  Cornish  plants, 
and  with  these  regular  pump-hoists,  geared  in  a  large  ratio,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  lift  or  lower  heavy  loads,  are  installed  at  the  surface.  These 
are  then  generally  used  also  for  running  a  cage  in  the  pump-com- 
partment. 

CHAPTER  V.  * 

Power-Plants  for  Operating  Pumps  Through  Rods. 

STEAM   ENGINES. 

2.5.01.  The  steam  engines  for  operating  mining  pumps  by  means  of 
rods  will,  for  want  of  a  better  generic  name,  be  simply  called  rod-pump- 
ing engines  in  the  course  of  this  article.  They  may  be  rotative,  non- 
rotative,  or  geared.  The  non-rotative  types  can  be  either  direct-  or 
indirect-acting.  Direct-acting  engines  are  those  in  which  the  piston-rod 
is  in  line  with  and  forms  an  extension  of  the  pumprod.  Indirect-acting 
engines  are  those  in  which  the  piston-rod  moves  the  pumprod  through 
the  medium  of  a  beam  or  bob,  as  in  Fig.  102  or  103. 

2.5.02.  Rod-pumping  engines  are  now  rarely  made  direct-acting, 
because  the  cylinder  then  obstructs  the  mouth  of  the  shaft.  Where  a 
beam  is  used  in  modern  mine  pump  engines  it  is  usually  placed  below 
the  cylinders,  because  in  this  manner  the  top  of  the  shaft  can  be  kept 
clear. 

2.5.03.  Large  cylinders  of  pump  engines  are  best  placed  in  a  vertical 
position,  because  then  the  heavy  piston  will  not  wear  the  cylinder  on 
one  side,  as  in  the  horizontal  engines. 

2.5.04.  Non-Rotative  Engines.  It  seems  proper  to  consider  the  non- 
rotative  engines  first,  as  they  are  the  oldest  type. 

2.5.05.  During  the  sinking  of  a  shaft  in  water-bearing  ground  the 
work  to  be  done  by  the  pump  engines  changes,  not  only  according  to 
increase  of  depth,  but  also  by  the  opening-up  of  new  bodies  of  water. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


13 


84 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


CO 

o 


C5 
t-t 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


85 


The  old  single-acting  Cornish  engine  and  the  double-acting  engines  of 
the  Ehrhardt  type,  both  of  which  work  with  variable  pauses  at  the  end 
of  the  stroke,  admit  of  considerable  variation  in  quantity  of  water 
pumped  by  changing  the  duration  of  the  pauses  between  the  strokes. 
Such  pauses  are  useful  also  in  affording  time  for  the  pump-valves  to 
seat   before  the  return-stroke  is  started.     These  engines  are,  however, 


even  when  compounded,  not  well  adapted  for  sinking,  because  the  engine 
work  during  each  single  stroke  can  be  varied  only  within  comparatively 
narrow  limits. 

2.5.06.  The  only  engines  of  the  non-rotative  class  which  have  been 
applied  to  the  Cornish  or  rod-pumping  system  in  our  mines  are  engines 
with  Davie  valve-gear,  many  examples  of  which  are  to  be  found  on  the 
Comstock.  Fig.  103  illustrates  the  Davie  engine  with  bob,  examples 
of  which  once  operated  at  the  C.  &  C.  shaft,  the  Gould  &  Curry,  and 
Hale  &   Norcross  at  Virginia  City,  Xev.     The  Belcher  and  Overman 


-•86 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


vertical-beam  engines  arc  shown  in  Fig.  104.  The  Lady  Washington, 
Lady  Bryan,  and  Alta  mines  have  also  had  such  engines  in  operation. 
The  steam  distribution  in  these  engines  is  either  by  slide-  or  by  puppet- 
valves,  controlled  by  the  combined  action  of  a  small  steam  cylinder  and 
that  of  the  main  engine  itself.  The  steam  is,  however,  not  permitted  to 
act  by  simple  expansion,  but  is  wire-drawn  to  a  great  extent.  In  order 
to  gecure  the  requisite  degree  of  uniformity  of  pressure  during  the  stroke, 
and  at  the  same  time  some  of  the  benefits  of  expansion,  the  Davie 
engines  were  usually  constructed  as  compound  engiaes. 

2.5.07.     These  engines  admit  of  a  somewhat  wider  range  of  variation 
•of  work  per  stroke  than  the  older  non-rofative  engines,  but  their  degree 

of  economy  in  the  use  of 
fuel  is  considerably  behind 
what  n^ight  to-day  be  ex- 
pected of  a  first-class  pump- 
ing engine  of  the  rotative 
type. 

2.5.08.  In  all  non-rota- 
tive engines,  the  point  at 
which  the  stroke  is  com- 
pleted is  uncertain,  on  which 
account  they  have  to  be 
operated  with  a  very  large 
amount  of  clearance,  entail- 
ing a  considerable  waste  of 
steam. 

2.5.09.  In  case  the  pump- 
rod  breaks  near  the  surface 
the  load  will  be  suddenly 
removed  and  th^  heavy 
masses  disconnected  from 
the  engine,  so  that  the  latter 
will  immediately  attain  a 
liigher  speed,  and  strike  the 
bumpers.  Many  breakages 
have  occurred  in  this  way. 

Fig.  105.  It  was  claimed  for  the  Davie 

engines    that    they    would 

Avhenever  the  speed   became 

has  shown  that   the   Davie 


automatically  shut  off   their  own   steam 

greater  than  a  given  rate;  but  experience 

valve-gear  was  no  safeguard  against  accidents  of  this  kind. 

2.5.10.  Non-rotative  engines  require  to  operate  with  a  more  uniform 
pressure  during  the  stroke  when  the  masses  to  be  moved  are  moderate, 
as  will  be  the  case  when  a  shaft  has  not  been  sunk  very  far,  than  when 
the  masses  are  great,  as  in  a  deep  shaft,  where  a  greater  initial  pressure 
can  be  allowed  to  accelerate  the  heavy  masses.  In  other  words,  the 
steam  should  be  cut  off  latest  when  the  work  is  least,  and  vice  versa. 
The  only  way  to  reconcile  these  contradictory  conditions  is  by  using  a 
very  low  boiler  pressure  at  first,  and  greatly  increasing  it  as  the  shaft 
goes  down.  This,  however,  would  be  impracticable  beyond  very  narrow 
limits  of  pressure.  In  the  Davie  engines  these  defects  are  corrected  to  a 
certain  degree  by  wire-drawing  the  steam. 

2.5.11.  In  order  to  enable  non-rotative  engines  to  utilize  expansion 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


87 


more  perfectly,  Davie  has  more  recently  arranged  some  of  his  engines 
with  beams  that  work  the  pumps  with  variable  leverage,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  105.  The  lever  arm  stands  about  normal  to  the  line  of  motion  at 
the  beginning  of  the  pump-stroke,  so  that,  as  it  swings  through  a  con- 
siderable arc,  the  effective  or  projected  leverage  is  much  reduced  at  the 
end  of  the  stroke,  thereby  causing  the  moment  of  the  pump-resistance 
to  correspond  at  each  point  more  nearly  with  the  change  of  pressure  on 
the  engine-piston.  As  the  engine  is  double-acting,  two  single-acting, 
oppositely   reciprocating   pumps   are    necessarily  coupled   up    in    this 


manner.  The  non-rotative  principle  is  not  being  applied  much  in 
recent  rod  steam-pumping-plants,  and  it  does  not  seem  probable  that 
many  more  engines  of  this  class  will  be  constructed  for  mines  on  this 
coast. 

2.5.12.  Rotative  Engines.  The  modern  forms  of  these  are  the  most 
perfect  types  of  rod-pumping  engines.  They  admit  of  economical  steam 
distribution  by  comparatively  simple  valve-gear.  They  can  be  operated 
at  higher  speeds,  on  which  account  they  can  be  made  of  smaller  size, 
and  the  work  per  single  stroke  can  be  varied  in  much  wider  limits  than 
can  be  done  with  the  non-rotative  engines.  The  last-named  quality 
makes  them  well  adapted  for  sinking  purposes.  On  account  of  these 
advantages,  most  of  the  recently  built  rod-pumping  engines,  both  in 
America  and  in  Europe,  have,  notwithstanding  their  greater  cost,  been 

7 — MD 


88 


MINE   DEAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


constructed  on  the  rotative  principle.  An  incidental  advantage  of  the 
rotative  engine  is  that,  in  case  the  pumprod  breaks  near  the  upper  end, 
and  the  load  is  thereby  suddenly  removed  from  the  engine,  the  latter 
will  require  time  to  accelerate  the  mass  of  the  flywheel  and  run  away, 


o 


2 


so  that  the  attendant  has  a  chance  to  close  the  throttle.  Governors 
which  automatically  close  the  throttle  or  throw  a  brake  onto  the  fly- 
wheel as  soon  as  the  speed  exceeds  a  certain  limit,  can  also  be  easily 
applied. 

2.5.13.     Fig.    102   illustrates   the   beam   pump   engine   at    the   New 
Almaden  Quicksilver  Mine,  near  San  Jose.     Fig.  106  gives  the  arrange- 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


89 


90 


MINE    DEAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


o 


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MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


91 


s. 


M: 


et 


3 


92  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

ment  of  the  pump  engine  at  the  Ontario  Mine,  Utah,  designed  by  W.  R, 
Eckart,  M.E.  The  inclined  position  of  the  cylinders  was  chosen  to  take 
some  of  the  load  off  the  beam-center  by  letting  one  cylinder  take  hold 
directly  above  the  rod.  If  vertical,  this  cylinder  would  have  to  come 
right  over  the  shaft,  which  is  objectionable.  Inclined  cylinders  were 
first  used  in  this  manner  by  Leavitt. 

2.5.14.  There  are,  however,  some  defects  connected  with  the  ordi- 
nary rotative  engines,  like  those  at  the  Ontario  Mine,  New  Almaden 
Mine,  and  others.  This  class  of  engines  cannot  be  run  at  very  low 
speed,  as  they  will  then  stop  on  the  center.  If  very  heavy  flywheels 
are  used  in  order  to  gain  some  reduction  in  speed,  the  engines  become 
too  expensive. 

2.5.15.  In  order  to  combine  the  advantages  of  the  rotative  engines 
with  some  of  those  pertaining  to  the  non-rotative  principle,  Kley  has 
constructed  engines  like  those  shown  in  Fig.  107,  which  are  connected 
with  a  crank  and  flywheel,  like  the  ordinary  rotative  engines,  but  differ- 
ing from  these  in  that  the  valve-gear,  instead  of  being  operated  from  the 
crank-shaft,  is  a  latch-gear  of  the  same  type  as  those  in  engines  of  the 
non-rotative  class,  and  is  worked  from  a  tappet-rod  a,  having  a  reduced 
motion  coincident  with  that  of  the  piston.  The  effect  is  that  the  crank- 
shaft may  revolve  in  either  direction  without  changing  the  function  of 
the  valve-gear.  This  quality  is  utilized  when  running  at  very  low 
speed,  down  to  one  stroke  per  minute,  by  then  adjusting  the  valve-gear 
so  that  the  flywheel  will  come  to  rest  just  short  of  the  dead  points,  and 
start  on  the  return-stroke  in  the  opposite  direction.  For  higher  speeds 
the  valve-gear  is  adjusted  so  that  the  flywheel  revolves  continuously  in 
one  direction  like  in  the  ordinary  rotative  engines. 

2.5.16.  The  most  modern  system  of  rotative  rod  engines  is  that  of 
Regnier,  an  example  of  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  108,  in  which  a 
smaller  auxiliary  engine  is  coupled  to  a  crank  at  right  angles  to  the 
main  crank,  so  as  to  aid  in  carrying  the  latter  over  the  dead  points. 
Very  light  flywheels  are  used  with  these  engines,  thereby  producing, 
even  at  the  highest  admissible  number  of  strokes  per  minute,  a  much 
retarded  rotative  speed  at  the  dead  points,  giving  almost  the  pause  of 
the  pumprod  motion  characteristic  of  the  non-rotative  engines,  and  sa 
beneficial  to  the  action  of  the  pump-valves. 

2.5.17.  Both  the  Kley  and  Regnier  systems  are,  particularly  for  the 
larger  sizes,  usually  built  as  compound  condensing  engines.  As  such, 
they  represent  the  highest  perfection  in  steam  machinery  used  for  oper- 
ating pumps  by  means  of  rods. 

2.5.18.  Geared  Engines.  This  class  of  engines  is  the  most  widely 
used  on  this  coast  for  operating  Cornish  pumps,  particularly  for  sinking 
purposes.  Figs.  109  and  110  illustrate  usual  arrangements.  The  bob 
is  operated  by  a  pitman  from  a  crank,  as  in  Fig.  110,  or  a  crankpin  in  the 
side  of  the  gear,  which  is  driven  from  the  engine,  as  in  Fig.  109.  In  larger 
plants,  the  crankpin  is  usually  carried  between  two  gears.  The  crank- 
pin  can  be  set  at  different  radii,  by  which  means  the  pump-stroke  can  be 
reduced,  which  gives  to  the  leverage  of  the  engine  a  greater  proportional 
value,  making  it  capable  of  pumping  from  greater  depth.  This  feature, 
combined  with  the  variability  of  work  per  stroke,  which  is  more  limited 
in  other  systems,  makes  this  class  of  engines  excel  all  other  rod-pump- 
ing engines  in  the  range  of  pumping-depth  for  which  the  same  engine 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


93 


may  be  used,  and,  therefore,  particularly  fits  them  for  sinking  purposes. 
The  decreased  capacity  due  to  reduction  of  pump-stroke  can  be  par- 
tially made  up  by  a  greater  number  of  strokes. 

2.5.19.  The  capacity  of  the  engine  may  be  still  further  varied  by 
changing  the  proportions  of  gearing.  Other  advantages  of  this  class  of 
engines  are  that  they  are  cheap,  and  when  no  longer  required  can  often 
be  readily  disposed  of,  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  they  can  be 
altered  to  adapt  them  to  other  conditions  or  other  work  than  pumping. 
It  is  also  possible  to  arrange  them  with  reels  or  drums  to  carry  a  cable, 
and  to  fit  them  with  means  to  throw  the  drum  into  gear  and  disconnect 
the  pumps,  so  that  the  engines  can  be  made  to  serve  as  a  pump-hoist  for 
sinking  work  and  lowering  parts  of  machinery  in  the  shaft. 

2.5.20.  An  objectionable  feature  of  the  geared  engines  is,  that  as  the 
engine  work  per  pump-stroke  is  uniform  they  will  have  their  greatest 
speed  when  the  resistance  work  of  the  pumps  is  least;  that  is,  at  the 
dead  points.     This  causes  greater  strains  in  the  pumprods  than  with 


\  Y^  ^  S'  >: 


-  --- 1 


^      1 


Fig.  111. 

the  other  rotative  engines,  while  at  speeds  admissible  with  the 
latter  the  action  of  the  pump-valves  will  be  so  tardy  that 
shocks  will  result.  The  number  of  strokes  that  can  be  allowed 
with  existing  types  of  geared  engines  is,  therefore,  appreciably 
less  than  with  any  of  the  other  rotative  systems  operating 
pumps  under  the  same  conditions,  and  the  geared  engines  and 
pumps  operated  by  them  have,  therefore,  to  be  made  larger  than  if  the 
dead  points  of  the  pump-stroke  could  be  turned  slowly.  Operating  a 
double  line  of  pumprods  connected  to  crankpins  at  right  angles  would 
reduce  the  acceleration  at  the  dead  points,  but  would  not  entirely  elimi- 
nate it;  besides,  such  an  arrangement  would  rarely  commend  itself,  on 
account  of  complication  in  the  pump-shaft.  To  cause  the  engine  to  do 
other  work  besides  pumping,  such  as  air-compression,  which  would  be  a 
maximum  at  the  end  of  the  pump-stroke,  is  also  generally  impracticable. 
2.5.21.  A  more  perfect  method  is  to  cause  the  engine  to  perform  and 
store  up,  near  the  dead  points  of  the  pump-stroke,  other  work  besides 
pumping,  such  as  raising  a  weight,  and  to  permit  such  stored-up  work 
to  assist  in  overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  pumps  near  the  middle  of 
their  stroke.  An  arrangement  for  carrying  out  this  idea  was  patented 
by  Charles  Bridges  in  1883.  The  principle  of  the  device,  though  prob- 
ably never  applied  to  mining  pumps,  is  shown  so  applied  in  Fig.  111. 
Between  the  driving-pinion  A  on  the  motor-shaft,  and  the  driven  gear 
B,  carrying  the  pin  C  for  operating  the  pumps  by  the  pitman  and  bob, 


94  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

there  is  interposed  a  third  gear  D,  having  half  as  many  teeth  as  the 
large  gear  JB,  and,  therefore,  making  two  revolutions  to  one  of  5;  a  pin 
E  is  fixed  in  the  side  of  gear  D,  and  supports  a  weight  F  at  its  maxi- 
mum leverage,  when  the  pump  crankpin  C  is  at  either  of  its  dead  points. 
The  direction  of  rotation  must  then  be  such  that  weight  F  will  be  lifted 
and  cause  resistance  to  the  engine  when  that  of  the  pump  is  lacking. 
When  the  pump  is  at  mid-stroke,  the  pump  gear  B  will  have  made  one 
quarter  of  a  revolution,  and  the  intermediate  gear  D  will  have  made 
one  half  of  a  revolution,  so  that  the  weight  F  now  descending  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  center  of  D,  aids  in  overcoming  the  resistance  of  the 
pump. 

2.5.22.  With  a  pumping-plant  of  any  size,  the  disturbing  effect  of 
the  moving  mass  of  the  weight  F  would  be  very  great,  and  in  such 
cases  it  is  suggested  that  a  piston  under  a  constant  pressure  of  air  or 
steam  would  be  a  better  contrivance. 

2.5.23.  The  simplest  plan  would  seem  to  be  to  automatically  vary 
the  steam  admission  during  each  stroke,  down  to  zero,  or  nearly  zero, 
near  the  dead  point.  In  this  manner  the  engine  could  be  adjusted  so 
as  to  run  slowest  when  the  pumps  are  near  the  ends  of  their  stroke, 
thereby  permitting  the  valve  to  come  to  rest  quietly,  even  at  an  increased 
number  of  strokes. 

2.5.24.  The  geared  pump  engine  deserves  more  consideration  toward 
its  improvement  than  has  been  accorded  to  it  where  rod-pumping  is  the 
method  to  be  used.  The  many  existing  examples  on  this  coast  are 
mostly  of  very  crude  and  imperfect  design.  By  arrangements  which 
operate  like  those  described  in  the  three  preceding  paragraphs,  the 
engines  can  be  made  smaller,  corresponding  to  the  admissible  increase 
of  pump-speed,  and  the  saving  in  cost  could  be  applied  to  obtain  means 
for  securing  greater  economy  in  the  use  of  steam,  such  as  compounding, 
steam-jacketing,  or  condensing.  More  perfect  and  better  constructed 
gears  than  those  on  most  of  the  existing  engines  of  this  class  are  also 
desirable. 

2.5.25.  Remarks.  An  important  matter  in  connection  with  pumping- 
engines  at  the  surface  is  their  location  with  reference  to  the  shaft.  In 
general,  it  is  most  advantageous  to  place  the  engine  at  that  side  of  the 
shaft  which  is  farthest  from  the  hoisting-compartments,  as  in  Fig.  112, 
because  then  the  space  around  the  shaft  will  be  least  obstructed.  In 
inclines,  however,  the  pump  engines  must  be  placed  in  a  vertical  plane 
parallel  to  the  incline;  that  is,  either  on  the  same  or  the  opposite  side  of 
the  shaft  on  which  the  hoisting  engine  is  located.  The  nature  of  the 
ground  and  kind  of  foundation  obtainable  around  the  mouth  of  the 
shaft  may  influence  the  general  design  of  the  engine.  It  may  also  be 
influenced  by  the  cost  of  fuel,  the  suitability  and  quantity  of  water 
obtainable  for  condensation  purposes.  The  depth  from  which  water  is 
finally  to  be  raised,  and  the  limit  of  speed  depending  thereon,  supposing 
the  quantity  of  water  to  be  approximately  known,  are  the  chief  elements 
in  fixing  upon  the  size  of  the  engine.  Where  economy  is  an  object, 
compounding  and  steam-jacketing  should  be  resorted  to.  At  high  alti- 
tudes condensation  will  be  of  less  advantage  than  near  to  sea-level. 
In  case  of  water  which  is  not  suitable  for  feeding  boilers,  surface  con- 
densation may  be  of  advantage. 

2.5.26.  As  has  been  stated,  a  mine  requiring  pumping  should  also  be 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


95 


equipped  with  bailing  arrangements  of  the  capacity  of  the  pumps,  so 
that,  when  these  or  the  pump  engine  requires  repairs,  the  water  can  be 
controlled.  Where  the  pumping-plant  is  of  large  capacity,  geared 
hoists  are  generally  too  slow  for  handling  the  water  and  at  the  same 
time  taking  care  of  the  other  hoisting  operations.  For  such  cases,  large 
direct-acting  hoists  should  be  used  which  can  bring  the  tanks  to  the 
surface  rapidly. 

2.5.27.  The  boilers  supplying  steam  to  a  pump  engine  should  be  in- 
dependent of  those  from  which  the  hoisting  engines  are  fed,  because  the 
intermittent  work  of  the  latter  causes  changes  in  the  steam  pressure, 
which  would  seriously  affect  the  speed  of  the  pump  engine. 


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Fig.  112. 

2.5.28.  The  mechanical  efficiency  of  rod-pumping  engines  depends 
much  on  how  nearly  the  pumps  at  the  different  levels  are  proportioned 
to  their  work.  Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  their  efficiency 
should  reach  that  of  water-works  engines  of  corresponding  types.  With 
these,  efficiencies  of  1  H.P.  per  hour  on  1^  lbs.  of  good  coal  have  been 
reached  under  test.  In  ordinary  operation  an  engine  will  not  show 
such  results. 

2.5.29.  Hydraulic  Motors  for  Pamprods.  These  may  be  either  water- 
wheels  or  reciprocating-piston  engines.  Of  the  former  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  mention  one  type,  the  tangential  waterwheel,  of  which  the  Pelton, 
Dodd,  and  Knight  wheels  are  representatives.  Reciprocating  hydraulic 
engines  have  but  a  limited  application  on  this  coast  for  operating 
pumps  by  means  of  rods.  The  ones  best  known  are  those  designed 
and  constructed  by  Mr.  Knight,  of  Sutter  Creek,  California.     Neither 


96 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


tangential  wheels  nor  reciprocating  engines  are  suitable  for  utilizing 
very  low  heads  of  water.  These  would  hardly  ever  find  application  for 
direct  pumping,  the  instances  where  they  can  be  utilized  generally 
requiring  comparatively  long  transmission  by  compressed  air  or  elec- 
tricity. 

2.5.30.     Cases  sometimes  occur  when  it  is  not  easy  to  decide  whether 
steam  or  water  is  the  most  economical  or  reliable  means  of  operating 


Fig.  113. 


the  pumps  and  other  machinery  at  a  mine.  The  cost  of  installation,, 
the  operating  expenses,  and  the  permanence  of  fuel  or  water  supply,  or 
that  of  its  cost,  must  be  considered  and  compared.  It  is  also  necessary 
to  find  out  if  the  water  supply  will  fall  off  appreciably  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  season. 

2.5.31.  In  using  water-power  it  is  generally  necessary  to  provide  for 
stoppage  of  supply,  due  to  breaks  in  ditches  or  pipes,  by  having  a  relay 
of  steam-power,  at  least  for  the  hoisting  machinery,  which  should  be  of 
such  a  capacity  that  the  water  in  the  mine  can  be  controlled  entirely  by 
bailing.  The  steam-relay  is  also  needed  where  the  water  supply  becomes 
short  in  the  fall  or  freezes  up  in  winter. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  97 

2.5.32.  Watenvheels.  Those  employed  for  working  Cornish  pumps 
are  arranged  to  drive  these  by  means  of  gearing  similar  to  that  used 
with  geared  pump  engines,  the  pump-bob  receiving  motion  from  a 
crankpin  in  the  side  of  the  driven  gear,  as  in  the  geared  steam  pump- 
ing-plant  shown  in  Fig.  109.  Gearing  is  necessary  because  the  pressure 
usually  employed  causes  the  wheel  to  make  too  great  a  number  of  revo- 
lutions, even  with  the  largest  practicable  wheel  diameter,  to  admit  of 
directly  driving  the  pump-bob.  Sometimes  even  compound  gearing  is 
required  to  obtain  the  necessary  reduction  in  speed,  as  in  Fig.  113. 

2.5.33.  In  order  to  utilize  the  power  in  the  water  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, waterwheels  should  run  at  a  fixed  number  of  revolutions.  The 
capacity  of  the  pumps  can,  therefore,  only  be  changed,  aside  from 
changing  the  pumps  themselves,  either  by  varying  the  radius  at  which 
the  crankpin  acts,  or  by  changing  the  gearing.  Any  of  these  will 
require  corresponding  changes  in  the  waterwheel  nozzles,  to  adapt  the 
power  to  the  altered  resistance.  Increase  in  depth,  the  quantity  of 
water  remaining  constant,  must  be  met  by  an  increase  in  size  or  number 
of  nozzles,  or  by  means  for  varying  their  discharge. 

2.5.34.  It  is  well  to  have  a  number  of  nozzles  to  the  waterwheel, 
with  a  gate  to  each  nozzle.  With  such  an  arrangement,  the  power  can 
be  adjusted  and  varied  by  regulating  one  of  the  nozzles,  the  choking-off 
amounting  then  to  reduction  of  efficiency  only  of  the  nozzle  affected, 
that  of  the  others  remaining  undiminished.  Fig.  114  illustrates  an 
arrangement  of  this  kind. 

2.5.35.  Fig.  115  illustrates  a  nozzle,  affording  a  variable  cross-section 
of  jet,  designed  and  patented  by  Mr.  A.  Chavanne,  of  Grass  Valley.  It 
consists  essentially  of  an  ordinary  nozzle,  having  an -opening  suitable 
for  the  maximum  discharge  required,  the  reduction  of  cross-section  being 
accomplished  by  the  solid  mandrel  D,  which  is  made  with  successive 
abruptly  increasing  diameters.  By  pushing  the  mandrel  forward  in 
the  nozzle  by  means  of  the  lever  mechanism  shown,  the  area  of  the 
opening  is  reduced  by  an  amount  equal  to  the  area  of  that  part  of  the 
mandrel  which  is  at  that  moment  within  the  nozzle-opening,  the  result- 
ing jet  being  thereby  caused  to  assume  an  annular  section,  of  which  the 
inner  diameter  can  be  increased  so  as  to  reduce  the  total  area.  If  the 
mandrel  were  simply  tapered  instead  of  being  made  to  increase  by  steps, 
the  issuing  water  would  cling  to  the  surface  of  the  mandrel,  so  as  to  be 
partly  deflected,  thereby  causing  a  disturbed  jet.  Although  the  efficiency 
of  the  annular  jets  decreases  with  the  increase  of  the  inner  diameter, 
on  account  of  the  greater  proportion  of  wetted  perimeter,  this  reduction 
is  not  of  so  vital  importance  as  to  counterbalance  the  other  advantages 
of  the  Chavanne  nozzle,  chief  of  which  are  its  simplicity  and  ease  of 
manipulation  by  either  hand  or  governor. 

2.5.36.  Waterwheels  applied  to  operating  pumps  from  cranks  have 
the  same  defect  as  the  geared  steam  engines;  that  is,  they  speed-up  near 
the  dead  points  of  the  pump-stroke,  which  results  in  tardy  closing  of 
the  valves,  and  prevents  higher  speed,  on  account  of  the  shocks  that 
otherwise  occur.  What  has  been  suggested  in  relation  to  remedying 
this  fault  in  geared  steam  pump  engines  (2.5.21),  also  has  application 
to  waterwheels,  with  the  exception  of  variation  of  power  supply  during 
each  pump-stroke  to  suit  variation  of  resistance,  which  would  be 
impracticable  with  waterwheels. 


Fig.  114. 


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Fig.  115 


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MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


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2.5.37.     Hydraulic  Pumping-Engines.     These  are  suitable  for  opei'-  ^^^ 
ating  under  both  high  and  moderate  pressures.     For  the  Cornish  sys-        '^'^/e-i 
tern,  they  are  arranged   either    to   work   the    rod   direct,  or  they  are  *^ 


o- 


o 


connected  to  it  through  beams  or  bobs,  like  the  non-rotative  steam 
engines.  Like  these,  also,  they  are  made  single-  or  double-acting.  A 
type  of  the  latter  is  shown  in  Fig.  116.     The  engine  illustrated  is  work- 


100  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

ing  at  the  Plumas-Eureka  Mine,  in  Plumas  County,  and  is  one  of  those 
designed  and  built  by  Messrs.  Knight  &  Co.,  of  Sutter  Creek,  Amador 
County.     The  engine  is  operating  under  a  720'  head. 

2.5.38.  The  admission  of  water  to,  and  discharge  from  main  cylinder 
is  performed  by  flat  D-valves  moved  by  an  auxiliary  cylinder,  seen 
above  the  main  one.  This  auxiliary  cylinder  is  controlled  by  a  small 
slide-valve  actuated  by  the  upper  tappet- rod.  The  exhaust  passes  from 
the  main  valves  through  two  balanced  piston-valves  in  the  short  cylinders 
seen  in  front  just  above  the  main  frame.  The  piston-valves  in  the 
•exhaust  are  controlled  by  the  lower  tappet-rod,  closing  slowly  after  the 
main  piston  has  reached  its  maximum  velocity,  and  retarding  and 
cushioning  the  flow  of  the  water  and  the  heavy  pumprods. 

2.5.39.  Another  of  these  Knight  engines  is  at  the  Wildman  Mine,  at 
Sutter  Creek.  This  takes  hold  of  the  rod  directly  without  the  interven- 
tion of  a  bob. 

2.5.40.  Like  the  non-rotative  steam  engines,  hydraulic  engines  can 
operate  at  any  number  of  strokes  below  their  maximum.  The  pauses 
at  the  end  of  the  stroke  can  be  made  of  any  duration  independently 
of  each  other,  thereby  securing  almost  perfect  action  of  the  pump- 
valves.  In  addition,  it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  length  of  stroke,  if 
required.  The  discharge-pipe  should  empty  under  water,  or  be  turned 
upward,  so  that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  will  keep  the  working- 
cylinder  full  of  water  during  the  pauses.  Air-outlets  and  drain-cocks 
to  wash  out  sediment  should  be  provided.  It  is  also  well  to  have  relief- 
valves  at  different  parts  of  the  engine  where  shocks  are  liable  to  be 
severe.  Where  plungers  are  used  in  the  power-cylinder,  they  are  best 
made  of  brass  or  bronze,  for  the  same  reasons  as  in  plunger  pumps. 
With  piston  engines  the  cylinders  should  be  of  brass  or  lined  with  it. 

2.5.41.  It  is  important  that  the  power-water  delivered  to  the  engine 
be  as  clean  as  possible.  Ample  provisions  for  settling  and  screening 
should  therefore  be  made  at  the  supply-reservoir  at  the  head  of  the 
pressure-pipe. 

2.5.42.  The  pressure-pipe  should  be  large,  so  that  the  water  in  it  will 
have  a  low  velocity,  because  the  flow  is  intermittent  and  the  column  of 
water  alternately  started  and  stopped  like  in  a  pump-column.  The 
number  of  times  that  this  can  be  permitted  to  occur  per  minute  is 
limited,  and  therefore  the  engine  cannot  make  a  great  number  of  strokes. 
The  admissible  number  of  strokes  is  less  than  with  non-rotative  steam 
engines,  particularly  for  high  heads,  on  account  of  the  great  mass  of 
water  in  the  pressure-pipe,  which  is  usually  of  great  length  compared 
to  the  pressure-head. 

2.5.43.  For  the  sake  of  reducing  shocks,  air-chambers  are  often 
placed  on  the  pipe  near  the  engine.  It  is  still  better  to  use  a  number 
of  air-chambers  along  the  pipe-line,  as  has  been  done  by  Mr.  Knight. 

2.5.44.  Hydraulic-pressure  engines  are  not  generally  used  for  sink- 
ing purposes,  because  the  pressure  per  square  inch  is  constant,  and  the 
total  pressure  on  the  piston  or  plunger  can  therefore  only  be  varied  by 
changing  its  diameter. 

2.5.45.  The  field  for  hydraulic-pressure  engines  as  prime-movers 
at  the  surface  has  been  much  reduced  by  the  much  cheaper  and  more 
durable  high-pressure  tangential  waterwheels.  These  are  not  only 
cheaper  in  themselves,  but  can  have  much  lighter  and  also  smaller 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  101 

power-mains  for  the  same  head,  because  the  flow  of  water  in  them  is 
continuous  and  not  intermittent,  as  in  hydraulic  engines. 

2.5.46.  An  advantage  which  the  hydraulic  engines  have  over  the 
waterwheel  is  that  they  can  easily  be  set  up  below  ground,  in  which 
case  the  discharged  power-water  is  forced  up  with  the  mine-water 
through  the  column-pipe.  The  engine  need  not  be  larger  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  the  additional  water  to  be  raised  is  balanced  by  the  increase  in 
driving  pressure. 

2.5.47.  By  placing  the  engine  thus  below  in  the  shaft  in  the  line  of 
the  pumprod  at  the  middle  of  its  length,  the  effect  of  elasticity  of  the 
rod  on  the  stroke  of  the  pumps  most  distant  from  the  application  of 
power  will  be  much  reduced,  and  the  rod  system  can  in  such  a  way  be 
used  for  greater  depths  than  where  the  engine  is  at  the  surface.  Hy- 
draulic engines  working  pumps  direct  have  also  been  built  by  the 
Risdon  Iron  Works.  Their  description  will  be  referred  to  in  the  section 
on  direct-driven  pumps. 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Operation  and  Care  of  Pumps. 

2.6.01.  Starting  and  Adjustment.  Before  putting  pumps  in  operation 
they  must  first  be  primed  or  filled  with  water,  and  to  make  this  possible, 
an  escape  for  the  air  must  be  provided  by  means  of  cocks  located  at  high 
points.     The  manner  of  priming  was  described  in  1.1.12  and  1.1.13. 

2.6.02.  In  order  to  adapt  the  total  capacity  of  a  Cornish  pumping- 
plant  to  the  varying  water  production  of  a  mine,  the  speed  of  the  pumps 
must  be  made  adjustable.  In  geared  motors  the  stroke  is  also  generally 
made  capable  of  variation,  as  described  in  2.5.18.  This  was  shown  in 
2.5.33  to  be  particularly  necessary  with  waterwheels,  in  which  it  is  not 
economical  to  change  their  speed. 

2.6.03.  The  individual  pumps  forming  a  series  operated  by  a  rod, 
will  often  have  to  handle  quantities  of  water  differing  greatly  in  amount, 
which  amounts  again  may  vary  considerably,  independently  of  each 
other  and  at  different  times.  Since  the  relative  volume-displacement  of 
the  different  pumps  is  fixed  by  virtue  of  their  attachment  to  one  rod, 
some  of  the  station-tanks  would  overflow,  while  others  would  be  entirely 
drained  and  the  pumps  would  draw  in  air.  To  provide  against  overflow 
the  pumps  must  be  speeded  up,  while  those  pumps  which  would  then 
drain  their  tanks  must  return  to  these  a  portion  of  the  water  pumped 
out,  so  that  the  suction-pipe  will  always  be  kept  covered.  To  accom- 
plish this  the  arrangement  described  in  2.4.13,  and  illustrated  by  Fig. 
94,  is  used,  in  which  a  float  a  in  the  tank,  on  the  sinking  of  the 
water-level,  operates  a  lever  b,  whereby  the  cock  c  is  opened  so  as  to 
let  water  flow  from  the  column-pipe  into  the  tank. 

2.6.04.  When  sinking  is  suspended  and  the  inflow  of  water  has 
diminished  to  a  very  small  amount,  it  is  often  better  to  provide  a  deep 
sump,  in  which  the  water  is  allowed  to  accumulate  and  from  which  it  is 
pumped  out  from  time  to  time. 

2.6.05.  Speed  of  Pumps.  As  sinking  proceeds  and  the  mine  becomes 
deeper  and  the  masses  to  be  moved  greater,  the  allowable  speed  becomes 
less,  so  that  the  capacity  of  the  plant  is  reduced  as  the  depth  increases. 
(See  1.2.38,  2.2.41,  and '2.4.24.) 


102  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

2.6.06.  Lubrication.  The  plungers  should  be  kept  well  greased,  the 
kind  of  lubricant  used  depending  somewhat  upon  the  temperature  of 
the  water  in  the  mine.     (See  2.4.04  and  2.4.05.) 

2.6.07.  Ai7\  The  pump  and  suction-pipe  must  be  tight,  so  that  no 
air  will  leak  in  from  the  outside.  There  is  always  some  air  in  the 
water,  a  part  of  which  will  be  liberated  in  the  pump  on  the  suction- 
stroke,  and  probably  only  be  slightly  reabsorbed  by  the  water  on  the 
working-stroke.  Where  the  pumps  are  set  at  some  distance  below  the 
station-tank,  so  that  the  water  will  flow  into  them,  less  air  will  be 
liberated.  Some  air  in  the  water,  if  in  small  bubbles,  is  not  objection- 
able, as  it  reduces  shocks  by  acting  as  a  cushion. 

2.6.08.  Putting  Pumps  Out  of  Operation.  If  water  discontinues  to 
come  in  at  the  lower  levels  of  a  mine,  the  pumps  at  such  points  must  be 
put  out  of  operation.  This  can  be  done  )jy  disconnecting  the  plungers 
or  lift  pumps;  but  then  the  work  of  the  engine  will  generally  be  out  of 
balance,  because  there  is  less  resistance  to  be  overcome  on  one  stroke. 
If  a  lift  pump  be  disconnected,  the  work  on  the  up-stroke  is  decreased; 
if  a  plunger,  then  the  work  on  the  down-stroke  is  decreased.  Lift  pumps 
are  easily  disconnected.  With  plungers  it  is  generally  better  to  leave 
them  connected,  and  to  put  them  out  of  operation  by  propping-up  the 
discharge-valve,  so  that  it  cannot  close.  A  special  arrangement  is 
required  for  this,  consisting  of  a  lever  on  a  shaft  passing  out  through  a 
stuffing-box  in  the  side  of  the  clack-chamber,  and  having  a  handle  on 
the  outside.  In  this  way  the  pump-work  will  also  be  out  of  balance  if 
the  column-pipe  is  full,  but  for  the  stroke  opposite  to  that  for  which  it 
is  out  of  balance  when  the  pump  is  disconnected.  By  keeping  the 
column-pipe  filled  to  half  its  height,  the  work  of  both  strokes  will  be 
equally  reduced. 

2.6.09.  Repairs;  Stoppages.  Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  stop 
for  some  time  in  order  to  make  repairs,  the  bailing-tanks  must  be  put 
in  operation.  For  short  stoppages  and  moderate  inflow  of  water,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  only  speed  up  and  pump  down  the  tanks  previous  to 
stopping,  so  that  the  water  from  the  upper  levels  will  not  come  down 
and  the  sump  water-level  rise  too  much. 

2.6.10.  If  the  discharge-valve  of  a  plunger  pump  requires  repairs  or 
changing,  and  there  is  no  stop-valve  above  it,  the  water  must  be  run 
out  of  the  column-pipe;  then  the  pump-work  will  be  out  of  balance  on 
starting  up  until  the  column  is  filled  again,  unless  a  supply  for  refilling 
is  available  on  the  surface.  For  this  purpose  a  connection  can  be  made 
to  the  column-pipe  from  the  station-tank  into  which  it  discharges.  A 
water  supply  at  the  surface  can  be  used  to  make  up  the  amount  by 
overflowing  successively  from  the  different  higher  tanks  until  the  one 
drained  is  filled.  If  the  suction-valve  of  a  plunger  pump  is  to  be  in- 
spected, the  water  must  be  let  out  of  the  space  above  it,  and  the  inlet  to 
the  suction-pipe  in  the  station-tank  be  closed  by  a  water-tight  cover. 

2.6.11.  A  leaky  valve  can  be  detected  by  the  diminished  delivery  of 
the  pump.  If  the  suction-valve  of  a  plunger  pump  leaks  badly,  there 
is  water-ram  at  higher  speeds,  because  the  pump  does  not  fill  and  the 
plunger  strikes  the  water  with  considerable  velocity. 

2.6.12.  For  warm  water,  and  where  the  speed  is  great,  and  also  in 
high  altitudes,  the  station-tanks  should  be  placed  higher  in  relation  to 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  103 

the  plungers  than  where  the  water  is  cold  and  the  speed  low,  or  where 
the  height  above  sea-level  is  not  great. 

2.6.13.  The  velocity  of  water  in  column-pipes  at  mid-stroke  should 
not  exceed  5'  per  second.  (See  1.2.38.)  If  large  column-pipes  are  used, 
the  pumps  may  run  somewhat  faster  on  that  account. 

2.6.14.  Cornish  pumps  are  frequently  run  at  speeds  which,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  are  not  allowable,  but  which  may  be  justified 
in  controlling,  temporarily,  a  sudden  large  influx  of  water.  At  the 
Ontario  Mine,  Park  City,  Utah,  the  rotative  engine  operated  two  16" 
plunger-sets  of  10'  stroke,  having  a  combined  total  lift  of  455',  at  thir- 
teen strokes  per  minute.  The  engine  is  situated  7,500'  above  sea-level, 
and  the  pump-chambers  would  not  fill  quickly  enough,  so  that  the 
resulting  water-hammer  frequently  broke  the  column-pipes,  which  con- 
sisted of  15"  diameter  hydraulic-tubing.  The  velocity  of  flow  in  the 
column-pipe  was,  at  mid-stroke,  nearly  7'  per  second.  Later,  the  same 
engine  operated  by  means  of  a  16"  wooden  rod  1,060'  long,  two  sets  of 
20"  plunger  pumps  of  10'  stroke,  each  set  having  a  lift  of  200',  the  total 
lift  being  400'  to  the  level  of  the  drain-tunnel.  Under  these  conditions 
the  maximum  speed  of  the  pumps  was  eight  strokes  per  minute,  while 
the  smoothest  running  was  obtained  at  about  six  strokes.  At  the  Com- 
bination shaft  on  the  Comstock,  before  the  hydraulic  pumps  were  put 
in,  there  was  a  Davie  non- rotative  engine,  operating  a  double  line  of 
14"  plunger  pumps  by  means  of  a  pumprod  over  3^000'  long;  the  maxi- 
mum speed  was  about  six  strokes  per  minute,  at  which  frequent  break- 
downs occurred. 


8 — MD 


104  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


SECTIOIsr    III. 
DIRECT-DRIVEN  RECIPROCATING  PUMPS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

General  Features. 

3.1.01.  The  desirability,  particularly  in  deep  mines,  of  means  other 
than  the  cumbersome  pumprods  for  transmitting  power  to  underground 
pumps,  is  continually  leading  to  improvement  in  methods  of  transmis- 
sion by  steam,  air,  water,  or  electricity.  The  perfection  of  these  has 
already  done  much  to  narrow  the  field  of  the  old  rod-pumping  system. 
The  greater  simplicity  and  the  cheapness  of  most  of  the  direct-driven 
pumps  have  been  sufficient  incentives  for  their  introduction  in  many 
places,  the  lower  economy  with  which  they  operate  being  in  many  cases 
compensated  for  by  the  smaller  capital  invested  in  the  plant.  At  pres- 
ent, however,  considerable  attention  is  being  paid  to  improvement  in 
economy,  particularly  of  steam  and  compressed-air  transmission,  and 
it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  direct-driven  pumps  will  still  further 
encroach  upon  the  domain  of  the  Cornish  pump. 

3.1.02.  By  direct-driven  reciprocating  pumps  are  meant  those  in 
which  the  pump-piston  or  plunger  is  rigidly  coupled  to,  and  moves 
coincidently  with,  the  piston  or  plunger  of  a  motor  cylinder  connected 
with  the  frame  of  the  pump;  the  motive  power  may  be  steam,  com- 
pressed air,  or  water.  The  pumps  are  always  double-acting,  and  often 
duplex,  like  the  Worthington,  in  which  the  two  engines  mutually  con- 
trol each  other's  valve-gear.  They  may  be  non-rotative  or  rotative, 
with  or  without  a  flywheel.  Except  in  the  case  of  sinking-pumps,  they 
are  nearly  always  horizontal. 

3.1.03.  Being  double-acting,  and  having  a  comparatively  short  stroke, 
with  very  much  smaller  masses  in  motion  than  in  the  rod  system,  the 
direct-driven  pumps  are,  unless  the  speed  is  limited  by  that  of  a 
hydraulic-pressure  engine,  capable  of  making  a  much  greater  number 
of  strokes.  They  are,  therefore,  in  the  best  position  to  utilize  the  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  the  application  of  the  air-chamber,  with  which 
they  are  commonly  fitted  on  the  discharge,  or  pressure,  side,  and  often 
also  on  the  suction-pipe.  If  the  pump-stroke  is  long  the  admissible 
piston-speed  will  again  be  greater,  because  the  number  of  reversals  of 
motion  is  less. 

3.1.04.  On  account  of  the  double  action  in  connection  with  the  effect 
of  the  air-chambers,  which  tends  to  equalize  the  flow  in  the  discharge- 
pipe,  the  water  in  the  latter  is  kept  continuously  in  motion  in  the  same 
direction.  The  column-pipe  can,  therefore,  be  of  much  less  diameter 
than  with  the  single-acting  Cornish  pumps.  As  there  is  no  stopping  or 
back-flow  of  the  water  in  the  pipe,  there  will  be  fewer  shocks,  and  higher 
speed  of  the  pump  will  be  admissible.  Duplex  pumps,  which  complete 
their  strokes  in  regular  rotation,  maintain  an  almost  uniform  flow  in 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


105 


the  column-pipe.  The  higher  speed  and  consequently  smaller  size  are 
features  which  commend  direct-driven  pumps  for  use  in  mines.  In  the 
suction-pipe,  similarly,  if  an  air-chamber  is  used,  the  column  will  be 
more  uniformly  kept  in  motion,  and  will,  therefore,  not  lag  back  so 


Fig.  117. 

readily  for  higher  suction-lifts  or  greater  speeds,  and  thereby  fail  to  fill 
the  pump-barrel.  Higher  suction-lift  or  longer  or  smaller  suction-pipe 
may  therefore  be  used. 

3.1.05.  Some  pumps  have  such  large  waste-spaces  that  when  the 
suction-lift  is  great  they  will  not  prime  themselves.  In  such  cases  a 
foot-valve  should  be  placed  at  the  lower  end  of  the  suction-pipe,  and  a 


106 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


pipe  connection  made  for  filling  the  suction  and  also  the  pump  from  the 
column-pipe  or  other  water  supply.  Expelling  the  air  by  admitting 
steam,  which  then  condenses,  will  also  prime  the  pump;  this  can  be 
conveniently  done  where  the  exhaust  is  condensed  in  the  suction-pipe. 

3.1.06.  Valves.  Direct-driven  pumps  are  nearly  always  fitted  with 
straight-lift  valves.  These  are  made  of  rubber  for  low  pressures,  or  of 
rubber-composition  for  pressures  up  to  200'.  Above  this  pressure,  and 
uj)  to  400'  or  500',  rubber-composition  with  bronze  cages,  as  in  Fig.  36, 
are  used.  (See  1.3.09.)  Beyond  500' only  metal  valves  will  answer. 
For  the  larger  sizes  the  valves  are  placed  in  sets  of  several;  except  in 
the  case  of  mechanically  operated  valves,  which  are  almost  necessarily 
single.  They  are  usually  spring-loaded,  and  their  area,  or  the  aggregate 
area  of  those  of  one  nest,  is  great,  so  that  they  have  a  small  lift  and 
close  quickly  on  completion  of  the  pump-stroke.     Fig.  117  shows  a  pump 


in  section  with  multiple  suction-  and  discharge-valves.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  large  valve-area  in  the  commonly  used  forms  of  pumps,  the 
suction  and  discharge  currents  induced  by  the  piston  or  plunger  gen- 
erally act  locally  with  the  greatest  force  on  some  only  of  the  valves  of  a 
nest,  causing  these  in  particular  to  lift  higher  and  to  close  more  tardily 
than  they  should,  while  others  remain  almost  closed,  so  that  shocks  are 
not  avoided  to  the  extent  that  might  be  expected  by  the  use  of  a  large 
number  of  valves  alone.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  current  is  not 
diffused  into  a  uniform  stream  of  lower  velocity  corresponding  to  the 
valve-area,  before  it  reaches  the  valves,  but  it  rather  breaks  through 
portions  of  comparatively  still  or  sluggish  water.  To  overcome  this 
defect  Mr.  G.  Hanarte  constructs  pumps  with  valve-chambers  designed 
so  that  the  current  is  gradually  and  continuously  increased  in  velocity 
from  that  with  which  it  passes  the  suction-valves  to  that  of  the  plunger, 
by  the  conoidal  form  of  the  elbow-chamber  above  the  valves,  and  again 
reduced  in  velocity  in  a  similar  manner  by  the  conoidal  form  of  the 
chamber  below  the  discharge-valves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  118.  From  the 
discharge-A^alves  the  velocity  is  again  gradually  increased  by  the  con- 
oidal entrance  piece  to  the  discharge-pipe.     Such  a  pump,  with  piston 


MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC. 


107 


108 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


3"  in  diameter  and  12"  stroke,  Mr.  Hanarte  has  run  at  400  double  strokes 
per  minute  without  the  least  shock.  This  gives  800'  piston-speed,  which 
is  remarkable,  particularly  for  so  short  a  stroke.  In  experiments  made 
at  200  revolutions,  and  at  10'  lift,  the  pump  gave  10%  greater  discharge 
than  the  piston-displacement;  at  100'  lift  the  discharge  was  equal  to  the 


o 


M 


displacement,  and  at  200'  lift  it  amounted  to  92%  of  it.  The  mechan- 
ically actuated  valves  of  Professor  Riedler,  described  in  1.3.18,  and 
illustrated  in  Fig.  42,  have  not  admitted  of  such  high  pump-speeds. 
The  Riedler  pumps  have,  on  the  other  hand,  been  successfully  used  to 
overcome  very  high  lifts,  a  pump  of  6"  diameter  of  plunger  and  20" 
stroke  having  been  run  at  80  revolutions  per  minute  without  appreciable 
water-ram  while  pumping  against  a  head  of  about  1,300'.  In  Fig.  119 
is  shown  a  complete  Riedler  pump. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


109  . 


3.1.07.     Piston  Pumps.     Figs.  120  and   121   show  common  forms  of    • 
these  pumps.     They  are  applicable  for  only  moderate  lifts,  and  where 
durability  is  desired  they  should  be  used  only  for  pumping  clean  water. 


Common  use  is,  however,  made  of  the  non-rotative  form  for  feeder  pumps 
to  the  station-tanks  in  mines;  and  in  such  duty  they  have  to  pump 
very  dirty  water,  and  also  receive  hard  treatment  otherwise.  They  are 
used  for  this  purpose  on  account  of  their  small  weight,  compactness, 
and  low  cost,  and  are  run  until  they  give  out,  when  they  are  sent  to  the 
surface  for  repairs  and  replaced  by  others.  Some  of  these  pumps,  like 
the  one  shown  in  Fig.  122,  are  made  with  exchangeable  cylinder-liners, 


110 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


SO  that  the  whole  pump-cylinder  will  not  have  to  be  thrown  away  when 
its  surface  is  worn  out. 

3.1.08.  The  piston-packing  is  usually  similar  to  that  used  for  pack- 
ing plungers:  hemp  soaked  in  Albany  compound  for  cold  water,  or 
square-braided  cotton  intermixed  with  plumbago  for  hot  water.     Such 

packing  is  driven  in  tight,  and  held  in  place 
by  a  follower.  Rings  of  square  rubber  pack- 
ing or  double  cup  leathers,  as  in  Fig.  123, 
are  also  sometimes  used. 

3.1.09.  Leakage  of  pistons  is  not  easy  to 
detect,  and  the  packing  cannot  be  tightened 
without  stopping  and  taking  apart  the  pump. 
Lubrication  of  pistons  is  difficult.  In  Fig. 
124  is  shown  a  means  of  lubrication  through 
the  hollow  piston-rod  as  applied  to  a  Knowles 
pump.  The  pump-cylinders  are  best  made 
with  brass  linings,  but,  on  account  of  cheapness,  the  plain  iron  cylinders 
are  mostly  used. 

3.1.10.  The  piston  pumps  used  underground  are  usually  operated 
by  compressed  air  in  a  manner  which  leaves  much  to  be  desired  on  the 
score  of  economy. 


Fig.  123. 


Fig.  124. 

3.1.11.  Plunger  Pumps.  Plungers  have,  in  direct-driven  pumps,  the 
same  advantages  as  in  Cornish  pumps,  i.  e.,  the  packing  can  be  tightened 
while  the  pump  is  running,  and  they  can  be  used  for  acid  water  and 
also  for  water  carrying  sand,  though  when  horizontal,  not  with  the  same 
freedom  from  wear  as  vertical  plungers.  In  direct-driven  pumps  they 
can  be  used  for  pumping  against  very  high  heads.     The  packing  is  the- 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


Ill 


same  kind  as  used  with  the  Cornish  plungers. 
Figs.  125,  126,  127,  128,'  and  129  show  com- 
mon forms  of  high-pressure,  double-acting 
plunger  pumps.  Brass  plungers  are  often 
used,  on  account  of  the  reduced  friction  and 
better  resistance  to  acid  water.  In  regard  to 
plunger  packing  and  lubrication,  the  same 
applies  as  remarked  in  2.4.04  and  2.4.05. 

3.1.12.  In  order  to  make  the  pump  double- 
acting,  either  two  plungers  are  connected 
oppositely,  as  in  Fig.  125,  or  a  double-ended 
plunger  works  in  two  oppositely  located 
pump-barrels,  as  in  Fig.  126. 

3.1.13.  A  very  compact  form  of  pump 
results  from  the  use  of  a  so-called  differen- 
tial plunger.  Such  a  pump  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  128.  The  area  of  the  smaller  part 
of  the  plunger,  which,  in  reality,  is  only  a 
large  piston-rod,  is  half  that  of  the  large 
part.  The  pump  has  only  one  suction-  and 
one  discharge-valve,  but  is,  nevertheless, 
double-acting,  as  far  as  resistance  to  motion 
is  concerned,  because  only  half  of  the  water 
delivered  through  the  discharge-valve  is 
forced  into  the  column-pipe,  while  the  re- 
maining half  is  drawn  into  the  space  sur- 
rounding the  smaller  part  of  the  plunger,  to 
be  forced  out  again  on  the  return-stroke, 
while  the  larger  end  of  the  plunger  is  draw- 
ing in  water  through  the  suction-valve. 

3.1.14.  A  plunger  without  packing  is 
shown  in  Fig.  117;  the  plunger  slides  simply 
with   reasonable   fit   in   a   long   sleeve,  the 


p^ 


Fig.  126. 


112 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC. 


lubricant  serving  as  a  sort  of  packing.  The  plunger  is  made  hollow, 
and  of  such  thickness  that  it  will  be  of  the  same  weight  as  an  equal 
volume  of  water,  thereby  causing  it  to  exert  no  pressure  on  the  sleeve, 


thus  reducing  the  wear.  The  sleeve  should  be  made  so  as  to  be  readily- 
interchangeable.  For  high  pressures  this  form  cannot  be  kept  suffi- 
ciently tight,  and  it  is  not  suitable  where  the  water  contains  much  grit. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC. 


113 


3.1.15.  Another  form  is  the  bucket-plunger  (Fig.  130),  which  is  suit- 
able only  for  vertical  pumps,  such  as  sinking-pumps,  and  for  clean 
water.  The  water  here  passes  through  the  plunger  and  the  discharge- 
valves,  which  are  located  on  top  of  it.  The  pump  shown  also  utilizes 
the  di^erential  principle,  described  in  3.1.13. 


Fig.  128, 


Fig.  129. 


3.1.16.  Air-Chambers.  The  object  of  air-chambers,  as  stated  in 
1.2.42  and  1.2.44,  is,  firstly,  to  change  the  intermittent  motion  of  the 
water  moving  with  the  pump-piston  or  plunger,  into  a  flow  as  uniform 
as  possible  in  the  discharge-pipe;  and,  secondly,  to  reduce  the  shocks  or 
water-ram.  Pumps  fitted  with  properly  proportioned  air-chambers  can 
be  run  at  greater  speed  and  against  higher  heads  than  those  not  so  pro- 
vided, because  the  mass  of  water  reciprocated  by  the  pump  is  compara- 
tively small  in  the  former.  It  follows,  in  order  to  keep  this  mass_  a 
minimum,  that  the  distance  between  the  discharge-valve  and  the  air- 
chamber  should  be  as  short  as  possible;  therefore,  an  air-chamber 
should,  in  large  pumps,  be  placed  directly  over  each  set  of  discharge- 


114 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


1 


-a 


a 
o 


§ 

-a 

o 

A 


p. 


Suction 


BUCKET-PLUNGER  SINKING  PU.MP. 


K    J: 


W.ater  En3,  iTiowlnff 
Icjwer  part  ivung  ailda 
and.  Removable  Cjliader 
out. 


El 


Hemovatle 
Cylinder 


tE  = 


W^ 


^ 


Fig.  130. 


MINE    DKAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  115 

valves.     Rarified-air-chambers  are  often  used  below  the  suction-valves 
to  equalize  the  flow  in  the  suction-pipe. 

3.1.17.  The  requisite  volume  of  air-chamber  is  largest  for  single- 
acting  pumps,  much  less  for  double-acting  ones,  still  less  for  duplex 
double-acting,  and  least  for  triple  pumps. 

3.1.18.  In  the  pressure  air-chambers  the  air  is  generally  absorbed  by 
the  water;  in  the  suction  air-chamber  it  is  liberated.  Pressure  air- 
chambers,  therefore,  generally  require  replenishing  from  time  to  time. 
This  may  be  done  periodically  by  a  small  hand  air-pump,  or  automatic- 
ally by  one  operated  by  the  pump.  The  usual  plan  is  to  admit  a  small 
quantity  of  air  at  each  suction-stroke  into  the  space  between  the  suction- 
and  delivery-valve  by  means  of  a  small  pipe  provided  with  a  cock  to 
regulate  the  quantity  of  air  to  be  admitted,  and  also,  so  as  to  prevent 
outflow  on  the  working-stroke,  with  a  check-valve. 

3.1.19.  Air-chambers,  particularly  those  of  cast-iron,  should  be  tested 
for  tightness  under  full  pressure,  and  then  painted  on  the  inside.  For 
light  pressures  gauge-glasses  will  answer  to  indicate  the  water-level, 
but  for  higher  pressures  try-cocks  must  be  used.  It  is  also  advantageous 
to  have  a  pressure-gauge  on  the  air-chambers,  which  will  indicate  the 
fluctuations  of  pressure.  Of  course,  the  use  of  such  appliances  is 
warranted  only  with  larger  pumps. 

3.1.20.  Instead  of  air-chambers,  spring-loaded  plungers  or  pistons 
have  been  applied  in  some  recent  high-lift  pumps.     (See  1.2.44.) 


CHAPTER  11. 
Non-Rotative  Pumps. 

3.2.01.  Non-rotative  pumps,  commonly  termed  "direct-acting  pumps," 
are  the  type  of  the  direct-driven  pumps  most  generally  used  in  this 
country.  They  are  cheaper,  occupy  less  space,  are  more  easily  erected, 
and  can  be  run  at  much  slower  speeds  than  single  steam  or  compressed- 
air  pumps  fitted  with  cranks  and  flywheels.  They  are  designed  for 
operation  by  steam,  by  compressed  air,  and,  in  some  cases,  by  hydraulic 
pressure.  They  are  less  economical  in  operation  by  steam  or  com- 
pressed air  than  the  rotative  type,  because  they  cannot  utilize  the 
benefit  of  expansive  working  to  any  extent  and  have  to  work  with  con- 
siderable clearance  in  the  steam  cylinder,  being,  in  this  respect,  in  a 
position  similar  to  that  of  the  rod-pumping  steam  engines  of  the  Cor- 
nish, Ehrhardt,  or  Davie  types,  described  in  2.5.05  to  2.5.08.  As  in  these, 
compounding  improves  their  economy.  For  larger  units  the  station 
pumps  are  generally  constructed  on  the  duplex  plan,  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  126,  first  introduced  by  Henry  Worthington.  Duplex  pumps  admit 
of  higher  piston  speeds  than  single  pumps,  because  with  them  the 
column  of  water  is  kept  in  more  uniform  motion;  they  are  also  more 
easily  started. 

3.2.02.  The  station  pumps  are  always  horizontal,  while  the  sinking- 
pumps  are  generally  vertical  or  inclined  in  the  line  of  the  shaft. 

3.2.03.  The  direct-acting  pumps  built  by  the  various  manufacturers 
differ  chiefly  in  their  mechanism  for  effecting  the  distribution  of  steam. 
Those  illustrated  and  previously  referred  to  show  some  of  the  great 
variety  in  existence. 


116 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


3.2.04.  Sinking-Pumps.  For  direct-driven 
sinking-pumps  the  non-rotative  type  is  the  only 
suitable  one.  Figs.  loO  and  131  show  types  of 
these.  Those  to  be  operated  by  steam  usually 
have  a  condenser  for  the  exhaust  steam  located 
in  the  suction-pipe,  as  in  Fig.  132,  which  illus- 
trates in  section  a  large  pump  of  a  style  much 
used  on  this  coast.  Duplex  sinking-pumps,  of 
which  the  Worthington  is  a  type,  are  not  used 
so  extensively,  on  account  of  the  amount  of 
space  they  occupy  in  the  shaft. 

3.2.05.  The  suction-pipes  are  always  of  hose, 
and  often  have  a  foot-valve  just  above  the 
strainer,  in  order  to  keep  the  suction  full  of 
water  whenever  the  pump  is  stopped  for  lower- 
ing or  raising  or  for  repairs  to  the  suction- 
valves.  This  foot-valve  should  properly  remain 
open  during  the  operation  of  the  pump,  and  not 
close  with  the  suction-valves,  so  that  the  suction- 
resistance  may  not  thereby  be  unnecessarily  in- 
creased. There  should  be  a  relief-valve  in  some 
part  of  the  suction-pipe,  whenever  a  foot-valve 
is  used  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  hose,  so  that  any  leakage 


past  the  suction-valve,  while 
the  pump  is  stopped,  will 
not  burst  the  hose,  but  will 
be  permitted  to  escape  un- 
der a  moderate  pressure. 
The  suction-hose  should  be 
wrapped  with  rope  to  pro- 
tect it  during  blasting. 

3.2.06.  Sinking  -  pumps 
are  generally  obliged  to 
handle  water  full  of  grit,  it 
being  impracticable  to  settle 
it  in  a  large  reservoir,  as 
is  done  with  the  station 
pumps.  The  larger  the 
cross-section  of  suction-pipe 
and  the  less,  therefore,  the 
velocity  of  the  water  in  it,  the  less  also  will  be  the 
amount  of  sand  drawn  up  into  the  pump.  But  this 
expedient  is  generally  not  sufficient  to  protect  the 
pump  and  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  its  early  re- 
moval for  repairs.  This  difficulty,  in  one  case  of  a 
large  pump,  led  to  the  design  of  a  settling-chamber 
attached  below  the  pump,  as  shown  in  Fig.  133. 
The  two  suction-branches  a  a  entering  the  chamber 
are  bent  over  so  as  to  discharge  circumferentially 
and  cause  the  water  to  assume  a  rotary  motion, 
whereby  the  sand  is  driven  by  centrifugal  action 
against  the  wall  of  the  chamber  and  falls  to  the 


Fig. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


117 


Fig.  132. 


118 


MINE   DRAINAGE,   TUMPS,   ETC. 


r 

^ 
: 

i 

\ 

f 

Fig.  134. 


bottom,  whence  it  is  periodically  with- 
drawn through  the  outlet  6,  for  which 
purpose  the  pump  is  stopped.  This 
device  is  said  to  have  operated  satis- 
factorily. It  was  jointly  designed  by 
Mr.  AV.  R.  Eckart  and  Mr.  G.  Dow. 

3.2.07.  In  case  of  a  sudden,  large 
inrush  of  water  the  sinking-pump  is 
sometimes  raised  and  the  water  permit- 
ted to  accumulate  to  a  depth  of  about 
10',  in  order  to  obtain  a  large  body  of 
comparatively  quiet  water,  in  which  the 
sand  will  be  more  liable  to  come  to  rest 
and  settle.  The  pump  then  draws  from 
near  the  surface  Avhere  the  water  is 
cleanest. 

3.2.08.  In  order  to  be  able  to  lower 
the  pumps  conveniently  and  with  the 
least  delay,  the  steam-pipe  and  water- 
column  are  generally  made  with  slip- 
joints,  often  of  a  length  sufficient  to 
admit  of  lowering  the  pump  for  a  dis- 
tance equal  to  the  length  of  a  full  section 
of  steam-  or  column-pipe.  When  shorter 
slip-joints  are  used,  a  short  section  of 
pipe  must  be  kept  ready  to  be  put  in 
and  taken  out  alternately  between  per- 
manent insertions  of  full  sections.  Fig. 
134  shows  the  construction  of  a  long 
slip-joint  or  telescope. 

3.2.09.  Instead  of  inserting  pieces  in 
the  column-pipe  above  the  slip-joint, 
which  necessitates  the  emptying  of  the 
entire  pipe,  it  is  generally  better  to  lower 
the  entire  column  when  the  pump  has 
gone  down  as  far  as  the  slip-joint  will 
permit,  and  then  to  add  the  necessary 
length  to  the  upper  end.  Sometimes, 
also,  the  column  is  lowered  with  the 
pump,  and  then  no  slip-joint  or  telescope 
is  required.  For  the  steam-pipe  the  tele- 
scope is  always  required.  There  should 
be  a  gate-valve  at  the  discharge  con- 
nection of  the  pump,  so  that,  when  inter- 
nal repairs  or  adjustment  of  the  pump 
becomes  necessary,  the  water  will  not 
have  to  be  drained  out  of  the  column. 
This  applies  also  to  station  pumps. 
(See  also  1.3.28.) 

3.2.10.  The  pump  is  generally  raised 
and  lowered  by  means  of  a  chain-block 
suspended  from  a  beam  thrown  across 
the  shaft  timbers.     Where  it  is  desirable 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  119 

to  lower  the  pump  for  some  distance,  say  equal  to  the  length  of  a  pipe- 
section,  the  chain  should  be  lengthened,  as  the  blocks  usually  admit  only 
of  a  lift  of  about  10'.  Large  pumps  are  often  handled  by  hoists  from 
the  surface. 

3.2.11.  The  smaller  pumps  are  usually  secured  by  heavy  iron  claws 
attached  to  the  pump,  which  hook  into  the  top  of  the  shaft  sets.  Large 
pumps  are  best  provided  with  regular  guides,  to  keep  them  in  line  with 
the  steam-  and  column-pipes.  Incline  pumps  of  large  size  are  usually 
mounted  on  flanged  wheels  guided  on  a  track  of  wood  or  on  iron  rails. 


CHAPTER  III. 
Rotative  Pumps. 

3.3.01.  In  these  the  motor-  and  pump-cylinders  are  also  connected, 
so  as  to  move  coincidently,  like  in  the  non-rotative  pumps,  but  they  are 
further  arranged  with  a  crank  coupled  by  a  connecting-rod  to  a  cross- 
head  moving  with  the  pistons  or  plungers.  They  can  be  operated  by 
steam  or  compressed  air;  for  operation  by  water  pressure  the  rotative 
engines  are  not  well  adapted. 

3.3.02.  Single  pumps  require  a  flywheel,  but  the  duplex  pumps  can 
often  dispense  with  one.  On  account  of  the  crank  and  flywheel,  rotative 
pumps  can  complete  their  stroke  close  up  to  the  steam-cylinder-heads, 
and  therefore  have  little  clearance  as  compared  with  the  non-rotative 
pumps.  For  this  reason,  and  also  because  they  can  utilize  the  expan- 
sion work  of  steam  or  of  reheated  compressed-air,  they  operate  more 
economically  than  non-rotative  pumps.  By  varying  the  point  of  cut- 
off of  the  steam  or  air,  the  work  per  stroke  can,  as  in  the  rotative  rod- 
pumping  engines,  be  varied  within  much  wider  limits  than  in  the 
non-rotative  pumps.  This  is  useful  in  adapting  the  pumps  to  increase 
of  lift. 

3.3.03.  Single  rotative  pumps  cannot  be  run  below  a  certain  speed. 
Duplex  rotative  pumps  can  be  made  to  run  very  slowly,  and  are  there- 
fore capable  of  a  wide  range  of  capacity. 

3.3.04.  Rotative  pumps  are  the  only  ones  which  admit  of  the  use  of 
mechanically  actuated  pump-valves.  The  well-known  Riedler  pumps, 
referred  to  in  1.3.18,  are  rotative. 

3.3.05.  The  rotative  principle,  as  stated  in  3.2.04,  cannot  well  be 
applied  to  sinking-pumps,  as  the  space  occupied  would  be  too  great,  and 
the  rough  treatment  to  which  such  pumps  are  subject  would  soon  unfit 
them  for  service. 

3.3.06.  Rotative  station  pumps  require  much  better  and  rnore  exten- 
sive foundations  than  the  non-rotative  pumps.  The  stations  must  also 
be  larger.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rotative  flywheel  pump  generally 
admits  of  higher  speed  than  the  non-rotative,  and  can  therefore  be  made 
of  smaller  size.  Examples  of  speeds  and  lifts  attained  in  practice  with 
the  best  modern  types,  like  the  Riedler  and  Hanarte  pumps,  have  been 
given  in  the  preceding  pages. 


9 — MD 


120  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Underground  Pumps  Driven  by  Steam. 

3.4.01.  Steam  Supply.  It  is  not  often  possible  to  place  steam  boilers 
under  ground,  as  they  require  large  excavations,  around  which  the 
ground  must  be  well  supported;  the  smoke  and  waste  gases  must  be  led 
to  the  surface;  the  fuel  must  be  brought' down,  and  the  ashes  raised  or 
transported;  generally,  also,  the  mine-water  is  unfit  for  boiler  use,  and 
suitable  water  has  to  be  led  down  from  the  surface.  For  these  reasons 
underground  steam  pumps  are  nearly  always  supplied  with  steam  by 
means  of  pipes  leading  from  boilers  located  at  the  surface.  Such  pipes 
have  been  described  in  Section  I,  Chapter  II.  It  was  there  stated  that 
they  should  be  well  protected  by  non-conducting  covering  to  prevent 
excessive  loss  of  heat;  that  it  was  an  advantage  to  have  a  reservoir  or 
drain  interposed  between  the  pump  engine  and  the  steam-pipe,  in  order 
to  produce  a  more  uniform  flow  in  the  steam-pipe  and  to  keep  up  the 
initial  pressure  in  the  steam-cylinder;  and  that  there  should  always  be 
a  valve  in  the  pipe  at  the  surface,  besides  one  at  each  pump. 

3.4.02.  Types  of  Steam  Pumps.  In  the  United  States  underground 
pumps  are  mostly  of  the  direct-acting  type,  although  recently  rotative 
Riedler  pumps  have  come  into  use  in  a  few  places.  The  reason  for  the 
preference  of  the  non-rotative  pumps  has  been  stated  in  3.1.01  to  be  due 
to  their  greater  compactness,  simplicity,  cheapness  in  the  case  of  smaller 
sizes,  and  minimum  of  attendance  required;  also,  because  economy  in 
the  use  of  fuel,  particularly  in  smaller  plants,  is  generally  of  less  im- 
portance than  other  considerations.  The  necessarily  non-rotative  sink- 
ing-pumps are  not  economical  in  the  use  of  steam,  even  when  arranged 
on  the  compound  principle,  because  they  have  to  meet  great  variations 
of  pressure,  and,  as  they  are  proportioned  to  work  with  full  pressure  at 
their  limiting  lift,  the  steam  has  to  be  very  much  throttled  while  they 
are  operated  under  lower  lifts.  Direct-acting  station  pumps  can  be 
better  proportioned  to  their  work  than  sinking-pumps,  and  can  utilize 
the  advantages  of  compounding.  They  can  also  be  fitted  with  steam- 
jackets  and  independent  exhaust- valves,  which  materially  adds  to  the 
economy  in  use  of  steam  or  air. 

3.4.03.  The  Cross  compound  rotative  engines,  driving  Riedler  pumps 
at  the  mines  of  the  Boston  and  Montana  Gold  and  Silver  Mining  Com- 
pany, are  compound  Corliss  condensing  engines.  Being  arranged  on 
the  duplex  plan,  they  can  run  at  a  high  speed;  and  as  the  cranks  are 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  the  speed  can  also  be  reduced  to  a  very 
low  limit.  • 

3.4.04.  Pumping  engines  should  be  fitted  with  a  governing  device  to 
keep  the  speed  below  the  permissible  maximum,  which  might  otherwise 
be  exceeded  in  case  of  breakage  of  the  column-pipe  near  the  pump, 
whereby  the  resistance  would  be  thrown  off  the  pump  and  engine. 
There  should  also  be  a  control  of  the  steam  admission  by  a  float  in  the 
station-tank,  so  that  the  speed  of  the  pump  will  adapt  itself  to  the  flow 
of  water  coming  into  the  tank.  These  remarks  apply  also  to  pump 
engines  operated  by  compressed  air  or  water. 

3.4.05.  With  compound  engines  the  steam  pressure  should  not  be 
lower  than  100  lbs.,  in  order  to  secure  sufficient  benefit  from  its  expan- 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


121 


sion.  With  single-cylinder  engines  the  pressure  is  usually  70  to  80  lbs. 
With  triple-expansion  engines  the  steam  pressure  should  be  still  higher 
than  with  the  compound  engine,  in  order  to  secure  sufficient  additional 
economy  to  warrant  their  extra  cost. 

3.4.06.  Large  compound  engines  should  have  their  valve-gear  so 
arranged  that  the  points  at  which  cut-off  occurs  in  the  high-  and  low- 
pressure  cylinders  can  be  adjusted  in  relation  to  each  other.  It  is  also 
proper  to  have  the  amount  of  compression  adjustable.  With  smaller 
pumps,  such  refinement  would  be  too  expensive,  and  the  mechanism 
also  liable  to  get  out  of  order  through  lack  of  attention.  Large  engines 
are  usually  under  careful  supervision,  and  there  steam-saving  appli- 
ances will  pay. 

3.4.07.  Condensation  of  Exhaust-Steam.  Steam  pumps,  when  used 
at  moderate  depth,  can  have  their  exhaust-steam  conducted  to  the  sur- 


FiG.  135. 

face.  Condensation  of  the  steam  exhausted  from  deeply  located  under- 
ground pump  engines  is  always  necessary  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the 
vapor  and  heat  by  conveying  these  to  the  surface  in  the  water  pumped. 
Sometimes  such  condensation  is  carried  on  at  atmospheric  pressure,  in 
which  case  no  economy  to  the  engine  results.  It  may  be  necessary  to 
do  this  where  the  mine-water  is  very  warm,  and  advisable  in  very  high 
altitudes  where  the  barometric  pressure  is  so  low  as  to  afford  little 
advantage  in  extra  effective  steam  pressure.  Generally,  however,  the 
steam  is  condensed  under  a  very  low  pressure  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

3.4.08.  Condensation  of  the  steam  may  be  carried  on  either  in  the 
suction-pipe,  which  is  the  universal  practice  with  sinking-pumps,  or  by 
means  of  an  independent  condenser  with  air-pump,  like  in  the  case  of 
most  of  the  large  station  pumping-plants. 

3.4.09.  Where  condensation  is  effected  in  the  suction-pipe,  the  steam 
should  enter  the  latter  in  a  direction  almost  parallel  to  the  flow  of  water, 
so  that  it  will  act  like  an  injector  and  thus  aid  in  accelerating  and  lift- 
ing the  water.  Such  a  condenser  is  attached  to  the  sinking-pump  in 
Fig.  132. 

3.4.10.  The  amount  of  vacuum  obtainable  by  this  method  of  con- 


122 


MINE   DEAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


densation  depends  upon  the  suction-lift;  the  greater  the  latter,  the  better 

is  the  vacuum  obtained. 

3.4.11.     With  horizontal  pumps,  such  as  are  used  at  the  stations,  the 

,,- -^^^  suction-lift  is  usually  low, 

and  there  is  danger  of 
the  water  rising  into  the 
steam-cylinder,  particu- 
larly when  the  pump  is 
stopped.  A  small  cock 
at  the  upper  part  of  the 
pipe,  opened  as  soon  as 
the  pump  is  stopped, 
would    prevent 


admitting    air 


by 

de- 


this 
and 

vacuum, 
however. 


stroying  the 
Such  cocks  are 
liable  to  be  forgotten,  and 
in  some  places  it  has  been 
found  safer  to  drill  a 
small  hole  into  the  pipe, 
which  will  continually 
admit  some  air,  at  the 
sacrifice  of  a  part  of  the 
vacuum.  A  better  plan 
is  to  carry  up  the  ex- 
haust-pipe sufficiently 
high,  and  then  drop  it  to 
the  condenser,  as  illus- 
trated  in  Fig.  135,  so  that 
the  bend  will  be  above 
the  top  of  the  column  of 
water  due  to  barometric 
pressure.  The  lowest 
point  of  the  exhaust-pipe 
can  readily  be  drained 
by  a  small  pipe  running 
down  in  a  corner  of  the 
shaft,  with  its  lower  end 
dipping  into  a  vessel  of 
water  placed  at  such  a 
depth  below  the  exhaust- 
outlet  on  the  cylinder 
that  the  outside  air  can 
not  force  the  water  up 
into  the  exhaust  -  pipe. 
With  vertical  sinking- 
pumps,  where  the  steam- 
cylinder  is  located  at  a 
considerable  height  above 
the    condenser,   there    is 

usually  no  danger  of  the  water  ever  reaching  so  high,  unless  the  pump 

is  working  close  down  to  the  water-level. 

3.4.12.     Station  pumps  are  generally  arranged  with  air-pumps  and 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  123 

condensers  independent  of  the  suction-pipe.  In  this  case  also  the 
injection-valve  for  the  condensing  water  must  be  closed  as  soon  as  the 
engine  is  stopped,  so  that  water  may  not  rise  into  the  steam-cylinder. 
This  danger  can  be  avoided  by  the  submerged  drain  extending  down 
the  shaft,  as  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The  air-pump  is 
either  driven  from  the  pump  engine,  or  operated  by  an  independent 
engine;  the  former  plan  is  the  most  common  with  rotative  engines. 
Figs.  136  and  137  show  a  Riedler  pump  equipped  in  this  manner. 
Direct-acting  pumps  are  usually  arranged  with  an  independent  air- 
pump,  as  in  Fig.  138,  and  the  latter  often  serves  for  a  number  of  pumps. 

3.4.13.  Where  there  is  a  chance  for  leading  the  exhaust  to  the  surface 
the  exhaust-pipe  leading  to  the  condenser  should  have  a  branch-exhaust 
into  the  atmosphere,  closed  by  a  tight  stop-valve  when  the  condenser  is 
running.  A  valve  to  close  communication  with  the  condenser,  while 
the  engine  is  exhausting  into  the  atmosphere,  should  also  be  inserted, 
so  that  repairs  can  be  made  without  stopping  the  pump. 

3.4.14.  Mechanical  Efficiency  of  Direct-Driven  Steam  Pumping -PI  ants. 
While  large,  triple-expansion  pumping-engines  of  the  best  design  and 
most  efficient  type  have,*  when  in  best  adjustment,  reached,  under  test, 
a  pumping  effect  of  1  H.P.  per  hour  on  less  than  1^  lbs.  of  good  coal, 
even  the  best  class  of  underground  steam-operated  pumps  will  probably 
never  be  able  to  approach  such  a  result.  If  an  efficiency  of  1  H.P.  on 
2i  lbs.  can  be  attained,  it  may  be  called  a  very  excellent  result.  The 
ordinary  small,  direct-acting,  single-cylinder  pumps,  even  in  their  best 
condition,  probably  consume  about  five  or  six  times  that  amount  of  fuel, 
but  when  leaking  and  badly  adjusted,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  ten  times 
may  not  be  an  excessive  estimate. 


CHAPTER    V. 
Underground  Pumps  Driven  by  Compressed  Air. 

3.5.01.  General  Remarks.  The  transmission  of  power  by  compressed 
air  is  one  of  the  most  convenient,  and,  if  properly  carried  out,  a  very 
economical  method  of  operating  pumps  and  other  machinery  under 
ground.  It  has  the  advantage  over  direct  steam  that  it  requires  no  con- 
densers; that  its  exhaust  cools  instead  of  heats  the  air  in  the  shaft  or 
stations,  and  can  be  turned  to  use  in  assisting  ventilation;  and  finally, 
that  it  is  generally  essential  for  operating  machine-drills  and  other 
machinery  at  points  removed  from  the  shaft,  where  the  use  of  steam 
would  not  be  admissible.  There  is,  in  addition,  very  little  danger  from 
the  rupture  of  a  compressed-air-pipe  such  as  there  is  with  steam-pipes. 

3.5.02.  Efficiency  of  the  Old  System.  In  the  majority  of  the  smaller 
plants  equipped  with  ordinary  compressors  and  pumps  driven  by  single- 
cylinder  engines,  which  receive  the  air  without  previous  reheating,  tlie 
mechanical  efficiency  is  very  low.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  a  loss  in 
the  compression  of  air  by  part  of  the  energy  expended  upon  it  being 
converted  into  heat,  which  is  afterwards  dissipated,  thereby  reducing 
the  volume  of  the  air  before  it  reaches  the  engines  which  it  is  to  operate. 

*The  case  referred  to  is  that  of  the  Milwaukee  pumping-engine  built  by  the  E.  P. 
Allis  Company.    Of  the  coal  used,  1  lb.  evaporated  over  9  lbs.  of  vrater. 


124 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


125 


TOimr? 


00 
CO 


IS 

M 


126 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


In  the  ordinary  types  of  the  latter  also,  if  the  air  is  admitted  at  the 
ordinary  temperature,  the  work  of  expansion  cannot  be  utilized,  because 
the  air  on  expanding  is  lowered  in  temperature  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
freeze  the  entrained  moisture,  which  thereby  blocks  the  engine  in  a  very 
short  time.  The  diagram,  Fig.  139,  illustrates  the  relation  of  the  work 
expended  in  compression  to  that  performed  in  the  engine.  It  is  laid  out 
for  a  pressure  of  six  atmospheres,  or  nearly  90  lbs.  absolute  or  75  lbs. 
gauge  pressure,  and  a  volumetric  effect  of  the  compressor  of  about  90%. 
The  line  AB  is  the  compression  line,  such  as  is  usually  obtained  in  an 
ordinary  single-cylinder  compressor  without  spray-injection.  The  area 
yi  ABDE,  shaded  in  horizontal  lines,  then  represents  the  work 
performed  on  the  air  in  the  compressor-cylinder.  The  dis- 
tance BC  represents  the  reduction  in  volume  of  air  due  to 
cooling  to  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
before  it  reaches  the  motor  engine.  The  dis- 
tance DF  represents  the  loss  of  pressure  due 
to  resistance  of  the  pipe-line.  The  distance 
from  the  line  IK  to  the  atmospheric  line  1  is 
the  back  pressure  on  the  motor  piston.  Fi- 
nally, the  area  FJGKI,  shaded  in  vertical 
lines,  represents  the  work  capable  of  being 
expended  on  the  piston  of  the  motor  in 
case  a  moderate  expansion  and  compression 
into  the  clearance  spaces  is  admissible, 
as  in  the  case  of  rotative  pump  engines. 
The  proportions  of  the  areas  ABDE  and 
FJGKI  give  the  relation  of  the 
indicated  work  expended  upon  and 


Fig.  139. 


given  out  by  the  air.  With  direct-acting  pumps,  when  they  run  slowly, 
no  expansion  or  cdmpression  will  be  admissible,  and  the  air  in  the 
clearance  spaces  will  be  wasted.  The  area  HJLI,  filled  out  with  inclined 
lines,  represents  about  the  proportion  of  work  recovered  in  this  case, 
if,  as  is  generally  the  case,  the  clearance  space,  as  represented  by  FH,  is 
large.  No  allowance  has  been  made  in  the  diagram  for  friction  of  the 
compressor  and  that  of  the  engine  or  other  motor  driving  it,  and  the 
friction  of  the  pumping-engine  and  pump.  These  several  losses  will 
again  increase  the  work  of  compressing  the  air  and  reduce  that  capable 
of  being  done  by  the  pumping-engine;  from  all  of  which  it  is  apparent 
how  low  is  the  efficiency  of  this  method  of  using  compressed  air. 

3.5.03.  Modern  Efficient  Compressed- Air  Transmission.  Improve- 
ment in  efficiency  of  compressed-air  transmission  must  be  effected,  first, 
by  reducing  the  work  of  compressing  air;  and,  second,  by  utilizing  the 
w^ork  stored  in  the  compressed  air  to  the  best  advantage. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


127 


3.5.04.  The  work  of  producing  the  compressed  air  can  be  improved^ 
firstly,  by  increasing  the  volumetric  effect  or  fill  of  the  compressor. 
This  can  be  effected  by  large,  light  valves,  preferably  operated  by 
mechanism.  Secondly,  by  cooling  the  air  more  effectually  during  com- 
pression, either  continuously  by  surface  cooling  or  spray-injection  of 
water,  or  in  stages  between  the  partial  compressions,  in  a  series  of  two 
or  more  cylinders,  so  that  the  temperature  is  reduced  as  much  as  pos- 
sible during  compression  or  between  stages  of  compression,  with  attend- 
ant reduction  of  the  work  necessary  to  bring  the  air  to  the  required 
condition. 

3.5.05.  The  work  obtainable  from  the  compressed  air  delivered  to 
the  driven  engine  may  be  increased  by  enabling  the  air 
to  work  expansively.  If  the  air  were  perfectly  dry,  ex- 
pansion could  be  utilized  directly;  but  as  this  is  never  the 
case,  the  air  must  be  reheated,  the  heat  thus  expended  hav- 
ing the  additional  effect  of  increasing,  in 

''■^^  proportion  to  the  heat  added,  the  volimie, 
^X    and  thereby  the  amount  of  work  obtain- 
'^'^    able  from  the  air.    In  compound  pumping- 
|v.|-  engines,  the  air  should  be  reheated  in  two 
stages,  and  to  a  more  moderate 
degree.     This  would  be  an  ad- 
vantage in  a  mine,  where  the 
heat  can  generally  be  imparted 
more  conveniently  to  the  air  by 
means  of  the  limited  tempera- 


I 

r 

•s 


,,    <H 


m 
^ 


JA- 


FiG.  140. 


ture  of  steam  conveyed  to  a  heater  located  near  the  pump  underground. 
The  air-pipes  can  be  smaller  than  in  the  common  system,  because  less 
weight  of  air  is  required  in  the  pump  engine  to  do  a  given  amount  of  work. 

3.5.06.  The  reheating  of  the  air,  by  whatever  means  effected,  is  best 
performed  close  to  the  pump  engine.  If  the  reheating  be  carried  on  at 
the  surface,  the  air-pipes  have  to  be  larger,  in  order  to  pass  the  increased 
volume  of  the  heated  air.  Such  pipes  also  require  good  non-conductii% 
covering. 

3.5.07.  In  order  to  give  the  best  effect,  the  reheating  should  be  only 
just  sufficient  that  the  air  after  expansion  in  the  engine  will  have  the 
temperature  of  the  surrounding  air. 

3.5.08.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  expansive  work  of  the  air,  like  that 
of  steam,  can  only  be  well  utilized  in  rotative  engines,  and  only  imper- 
fectly in  direct-acting  ones  at  high   speed.     Compound,   direct-acting 


128 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


pump  engines  are  better  situated  in  this  respect  than  the  single-cylinder 
type,  as  they  admit  of  a  wider  range  of  expansion  for  the  same  variation 
of  pressure  per  stroke. 

3.5.09.  The  diagram,  Fig.  140,  illustrates  the  result  of  increasing  the 
volumetric  effect  and  compounding  the  compressor,  and  of  reheating  the 
air  to  about  260°  Fahr.  before  it  enters  the  pump  engine,  thus  increasing 
its  volume  from  FM  to  FJ.  The  pressures  are  the  same  as  for  the 
diagram.  Fig.  139.  The  horizontally  shaded  area  AB1B2B3DE  repre- 
sents the  work  spent  in  compressing  the  air,  while  the  area  FJGIH  is 
that  capable  of  being  done  by  the  air  when  reheated  to  260°.  The  area 
WXYZ  represents  the  additional  work  that  could  be  utilized 
in  the  compressor  for  an  expenditure  of  fuel  equal  to  that 
used  in  reheating  the  compressed  air.  This  area  must  be 
added  to  the  compressor-diagram  ABjBgBgDE  before  com- 
paring it  with  the  diagram  of  work 
capable  of  being  performed  by  the  re- 
heated air.  A  compound  compressor 
can  be  run  at  higher  speed,  and  conse- 
quently be  of  smaller  size,  than  a  sin- 
j-  gle-cylinder  machine,  if  the 
action  of  the  admission-valves 
be  such  as  to  insure  a  good 
fill.  In  such  a  compressor 
the  chief  cooling  of  the  air  is 
not   performed   during  com- 

receiver 


Fig.  141. 


between  the  two  cylinders,  where  there  is  more  time  and  surface  afforded 
for  efficiently  lowering  the  temperature. 

3.5.10.  The  diagram.  Fig.  141,  shows  the  relation  under  the  same 
conditions  of  compression  as  for  Fig.  140,  but  for  a  compound  pumping- 
€ngine,  with  a  more  moderate  amount  of  reheating  of  the  air  up  to 
about  160°  Fahr.  in  two  successive  stages.  In  the  first  reheating  the 
volume  of  the  air  is  increased  from  FM  to  FJ;  in  the  second,  from  ON 
♦o  OP.  The  area  WXYZ  represents  the  value  in  compressor  work  of 
the  amount  of  reheat, 

3.5.11.  Rise  in  Temperature  with  Ratio  of  Extreme  Pressures.  The 
temperature  to  which  air  will  be  heated  by  compression,  if  we  neglect 
any  cooling  effect  during  this  operation,  is  proportional  to  the  initial 
absolute  temperature*  of  the  air.     It  increases  also  with  the  ratio  of 

*  The  absolute  temperature  is  that  indicated  by  the  thermometer  plus  461.2°  Fahr. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


129 


the  final  absolute  pressure  to  the  initial  absolute  pressure.  In  ordinary 
compressors  the  pressure  of  the  air  drawn  in  is,  on  account  of  valve  resist- 
ance, initially  less  than  that  of  the  outer  air,  so  that  in  such  machines 
the  ratio  of  pressures,  and  therefore  the  final  temperature,  is  greater 
than  if  the  air  filled  the  cylinder  with  atmospheric  pressure.  For  the 
same  reason  air  will  be  heated  more  by  compression  to  the  same  gauge 
pressure  above  the  atmosphere  in  higher  altitudes  than  at  sea-level. 
The  formula  expressing  these  relations  is: 


(It) 


0.2908         Tj 


In  which  ^i  is  the  initial  absolute  pressure,  ^2  ^^^  final  absolute  press- 
ure, Ti  the   initial    absolute   temperature,  and  Tg  the   final    absolute 


■  2- 
/- 

<7_ 


■^frTjfff^Afri'r      Zinfi. 


Fig.  142. 

temperature.*  The  heating  due  to  compression  will  be  modified  in 
practice  by  moisture  contained  in  the  air  and  by  cooling,  which  always 
takes  place  to  some  extent,  even  if  no  provision  for  it  is  made.  If  the 
compression  is  rapidly  performed  the  effect  of  cooling  during  com- 
pression will  be  less.  The  Lower  initial  air-pressure  in  high  altitudes 
requires  correspondingly  larger  compressors. 

3.5.12.  The  heating  by  compression  having  been  shown  in  the  fore- 
going to  be  greater  with  the  ratio  of  final  to  initial  pressure,  it  is 
natural  to  consider  a  reduction  of  this  ratio.  If,  however,  we  should 
employ  atmospheric  pressure  as  the  initial  one  for  such  reduced  ratio, 
the  compressor  and  air  engines  would  require  very  large  cylinders. 

3.5.13.  The,  Cummings  System  of  Compressed- Air  Transmission.  Con- 
siderations like  the  foregoing  have  led  Mr.  Charles  Cummings  to  devise 
a  system  of  air-power  transmission,  in  which  the  initial  absolute  press- 

*  Absolute  pressure  is  gauge  pressure  plus  atmospheric  pressure. 


130 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


ure  of  the  air  entering  the  compressor  and  the  equal  final  pressure  of 
the  air  leaving  the  engine  are  high,  say  80  to  100  lbs.;  while  the  final 


the  compressor,  or  the  initial  pressure  in  the 


engine, 


are 


pressure  m 

about  twice  this  amount.  These  conditions  necessitate  a  return  pipe 
for  the  lower  pressure,  the  compressor,  air  engine,  and  pipe-lines  form- 
ing a  closed  system,  in  which  the  same  air  is  used  over  and  over  again. 
The  diagram,  Fig.  142,  shows  by  areas  the  relation  of  the  work  neces- 
sary to  compress  the  air,  to  the  work  capable  of  being  utilized  in  the 
air  engine.  The  compressor  work  is  indicated  in  horizontal,  and  that 
of  the  engine  in  vertical  shading. 

3.5.14.  The  weight  of  air  required  to  pass  the  system  per  unit  of 
time,  for  the  same  power,  is  greater  in  this  system  than  when  using  the 
ordinary  reheating  system.     As  a  result,  the  return  pipe  particularly 


V 


.V 


^^ 


.& 


n 


w— 


<r s-^  <J 

^ 

^ 

^      -50^ 

:    : :  i^eE  ^s><»^ 

"I!   >]fSs^w^ 

\---     "~  "  ■" 

'34:  5 Co- 

t _::;  ,:_  "  _ 

jt              .    ;  ._:_ 

:         :          lit; 5!^,>SL 

•         ^ 

±::                     ::.::: 

S-'^'^^S 

±..               -  -  .::: 

3^::          :  :_:::-_  _ 

IM 

5^ 

\ 

it        _.     ^ 

\          _  . 

N^                t 

zi:_:         _:::.;:4:::: 

Sjfc-^ 

> 

ij;il 

(w  ^ 

V 

r>~^ 

S*w  , 

^llllllllllllll'N 

iUJJ 

^^i 

/^ 


.Atmospheric  Zinc  ■ 


Fig.  143. 

must  be  of  larger  size  than  the  single  pipe  of  the  reheating  system,  if 
the  velocity  of  air  in  the  pipes  be  assumed  to  be  the  same  in  both  cases. 
The  power  pipe-line  will  not  vary  much  from  that  required  for  the 
reheating-plant,  only  in  that  it  is  subjected  to  higher  pressure. 

3.5.15.  Notwithstanding  the  extra  cost  for  transmission  pipe,  the 
Cummings  system  has  very  much  to  recommend  it  for  operating  pumps 
underground,  especially  where  reheating  would  introduce  complication. 
With  it  the  advantages  of  compound  compression  and  cooling  during 
compression  are  much  less  marked  than  in  the  systems  using  initial 
atmospheric  pressure,  which  permits  dispensing  with  considerable  com- , 
plication.  As  the  air  cannot  heat  by  compression  beyond  a  moderate 
amount,  the  compressor  can  be  allowed  to  run  faster,  and  therefore  be 
made  of  correspondingly  smaller  size.  Reheating  also  permits  increase 
of  efficiency,  though,  on  account  of  the  originally  high  efficiency,  it  is  of 
less  proportional  value  than  in  the  ordinary  system.  Fig.  143  shows 
the  effect  of  reheating  to  the  mechanically  economic  limit.  The  average 
pressure  in  the  compressor  and  also  in  the  engine  varies  less  from  the 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  131 

extremes  than  in  the  atmospheric-pressure  system.  An  incidental  ad- 
vantage is,  that  the  pump  engines,  particularly  if  direct-acting,  can  be 
operated  under  water  until  they  give  out.  This  feature  adds  a  valuable 
guarantee  to  the  safety  of  the  mine.  The  compressor  and  air  engine  are 
cheaper,  but  the  transmission  pipes  are  more  expensive  than  in  other 
systems.  To  properly  estimate  the  value  of  this  system  it  must  be  com- 
pared with  the  reheating  system  as  to  mechanical  efficiency,  first  cost, 
and  simplicity  of  construction  and  manipulation. 

3.5.16.  Compressed- Air  Pump  Engines.  The  pump  engines  driven 
by  compressed  air  are  similar  to  those  driven  by  steam.  Lubrication  of 
slide-valves  is  somewhat  more  difficult  if  the  air  is  reheated.  Puppet- 
valves  would  probably  be  better  for  reheated-air  engines.  Rotative  fly- 
wheel engines  are  the  ones  adapted  for  utilizing  the  expansive  work  of 
the  air.  Direct-acting  pump  engines  are,  however,  much  operated  by 
air,  particularly  the  small  pumps  used  in  winzes  and  parts  of  the  mine 
removed  from  the  shaft,  which  are  nearly  always  operated  by  this 
means.  Air-driven  station  pump  engines  can  be  regulated  in  the  same 
manner  as  steam  engines  by  control  of  the  air  supply  from  a  float  in 
the  station-tank. 

3.5.17.  Reheaters.  These  may  be  designed  for  heating  by  direct  fire  or 
by  steam.  The  latter  would  be  the  most  convenient  underground.  They 
should  be  arranged  with  the  pipes  so  that  the  steam  travels  a  considera- 
ble distance  in  them  while  the  air  travels  in  a  course  opposite  to  that  of 
the  steam.  This  gives  the  best  possible  effect  of  heat  expended.  The 
water  of  condensation  should  be  removed  automatically  by  a  trap  at  the 
lower  end.  In  the  compressed-air  pumping-plant  at  the  Magalia  Mine, 
Butte  County,  California,  the  air  is  reheated  close  to  the  pump  by  steam 
conducted  down  the  shaft.  Reheating  at  the  surface  is  the  method 
adopted  at  the  North  Star  Mine,  Grass  Valley,  and  the  air-pipe  is 
covered  by  non-conducting  material  to  retain  as  much  of  the  heat  as 
possible. 

3.5.18.  On  first  thought  it  may  appear  to  many  that  the  steam  might 
be  used  to  better  advantage  in  driving  a  pump  engine  than  to  reheat 
air,  but  this  is  not  the  case,  because  the  steam  parts  with  its  latent  heat 
of  vaporization  in  heating,  nearly  all  of  which  heat  can  be  converted 
into  work  in  the  air  engine,  which  is  not  possible  in  the  steam  engine. 
In  reheating  compressed  air  the  steam  is  used  about  five  times  as 
efficiently  as  in  performing  work  directly.  Where  an  air  engine  is 
operated  at  no  great  distance  from  the  compressor,  and  where  the  latter 
delivers  the  air  at  a  considerable  temperature,  it  may  be  possible  to 
keep  the  heat  in  the  air  by  non-conducting  covering  applied  to  the  pipe. 
In  this  way  good  efficiency  could  be  realized  without  reheating. 

3.5.19.  Receivers.  Long  air-pipes  serve  in  a  measure  as  receivers 
and  storage  for  the  compressed  air.  Separate  receivers  are,  however, 
generally  also  located  near  the  compressor  at  the  surface,  and  sometimes 
near  the  engine  underground,  to  serve  as  regulators.  (See  1.2.60.) 
They  serve  incidentally  also  for  'trapping  part  of  the  moisture  contained 
in  the  air.  They  should  be  fitted  with  a  waterglass  to  indicate  the  level 
of  this  water,  a  pressure-gauge,  safety-valve,  and  means  for  draining  off 
water. 


132  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

3.5.20.  Compressors.  Compressors  must  adapt  their  output  to  the 
requirements  of  the  underground  machinery.  For  this  reason  they 
have  to  operate  at  all  speeds,  and  frequently  must  stop  altogether. 
Their  regulation  in  this  respect  is  made  dependent  upon  the  air-pressure 
in  the  receiver,  which,  by  suitable  mechanism,  causes  a  shutting  off  of 
the  power  supply  and  slowing  down  of  the  compressor  when  the  pressure 
rises  above  a  given  limit,  and  inversely  causes  an  increase  of  power 
supply  and  speed  when  the  pressure  falls.  Where  the  draught  upon 
the  compressor  is  so  irregular  that  it  has  to  stop  frequently,  a  duplex 
compressor  presents  the  advantage  of  being  self-starting. 

3.5.21.  The  irregular  duty  and  speed  of  the  compressor  are  much 
more  favorable,  as  regards  mechanical  efficiency,  for  operation  by  steam- 
than  by  water-power.  This  may  affect  the  choice  of  power  where  the 
water  has  to  be  bought.  It  is,  however,  to  be  remarked,  that  for  pump- 
ing the  work  is  generally  more  regular  than  for  hoisting  or  rock-drilling, 
and  where  a  separate  compressor  operates  the  pumps,  it  may  be  possible 
to  utilize  water-power  with  some  degree  of  efficiency. 

3.5.22.  Water-injection  cooling  is  much  less  employed  now  than 
formerly.  If  water  is  used  in  the  compressor-cylinder,  it  should  be  per- 
fectly clean,  otherwise  the  cylinder  will  soon  wear  out.  It  is  generally 
difficult  to  obtain  clean  water  in  mining  regions.  If  so  much  water  is 
injected  that  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  kept  down  to  20'^  or  30*^  above 
that  which  it  had  on  entering,  there  is  quite  an  amount  of  work  required 
to  force  in  the  larger  volume  of  water,  for  which  no  useful  returns  are 
had.  As  the  volume  of  water  injected  per  stroke  is  liable  to  be  greater 
than  that  of  the  clearance  space,  the  speed  of  the  compressor  must  be 
kept  lower  than  where  no  injection  is  used,  to  avoid  risk  of  breaking  the 
compressor-heads.  Another  objection  to  the  use  of  injection- water  is 
that  it  interferes  with  lubrication  by  floating  the  oil  away  from  the 
rubbing  surfaces. 

3.5.23.  The  volumetric  effect  of  a  compressor  is  reduced  not  only  by 
the  resistance  of  the  suction-valves,  but  also  by  the  heat  of  the  metal  of 
these  valves  and  passages,  which  impart  some  of  this  heat  to  the  air 
drawn  in  on  the  suction-stroke,  causing  it  to  expand  and  thereby  fill  the 
cylinder  with  a  volume  of  air  of  less  weight  and  higher  temperature. 
The  effect  is  a  double  one:  first,  a  lowered  output  of  the  compressor, 
then  a  higher  final  temperature  due  to  compression,  both  these  combin- 
ing to  lower  the  efficiency. 

3.5.24.  A  high-class,  modern,  steam-operated,  compressed-air  pump- 
ing-plant  will  compare  favorably  in  commercial  efficiency  with  under- 
ground steam  pumping-engines.  The  high-duty  steam  pumping-engines, 
whether  rotative  or  direct-acting,  are  more  expensive  than  those  which 
give  good  efficiency  when  operated  by  compressed  air.  The  former  also 
require  more  and  better  attendance,  which  increases  the  operating 
expense  if  there  are  pumps,  as  is  usual,  at  several  points  in  the  shaft. 
It  is  also  possible  to  use  a  larger  engine  at  the  surface,  which  can  be 
more  easily  made  of  high  efficiency  than  underground  engines,  particu- 
larly if  the  underground  machinery  is  cut  up  into  several  units. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


133 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Pumps  Operated  by  Attached  Hydraulic-Pressure  Engines. 

3.6.01.  Hydraulic  operation  of  underground  pump  engines  may  be 
accomplished  in  several  ways.  Firstly,  the  pumping-engines  under- 
ground may  be  directly  operated  by  a  natural  head  of  water,  the  engine 


no 


/  m 


/   /rh  =/ 


/ 

Fig.  144. 


.^,„^/_jJvv  y^ 


1 


4i/- 


delivering  the  spent  power-water,  together  with  the  mine-water,  at  the 
point  of  discharge.  Secondly,  the  pressure  necessary  to  drive  the  under- 
ground hydraulic  pumping-engine  may  be  artificially  generated,  either 
entirely  or  as  supplemental  to  an  insufficient  head,  by  a  steam  engine 
driving  pumps  at  the  surface.     In  this  case,  also,  the  power-water  is 


Fig.  145. 


delivered,  together  with  the  mine-water,  at  the  point  of  discharge,  but  if 
this  point  is  at  the  surface,  the  power-water  may  be  used  over  and  over 
again.  A  third  method  of  operation,  different  from  the  two  foregoing 
ones,  is  by  means  of  the  so-called  hydraulic  pumprods.  In  this  plan 
one  or  two  columns  of  water  are  reciprocated  by  a  valveless  pump 
driven  by  a  prime-mover,  and  impart  corresponding  motion  to  a  piston 
or  plunger  connected  with  the  mine  pump. 

3.6.02.  Hydraulic  Engines  Controlled  by  Valves.  The  underground 
hydraulic  engines  employed  to  operate  pumps  in  the  manner  first 
named  are  similar  to  those  used  at  the  surface  for  working  pumps 
through  rods,  except  that  the  pump-plungers  are  directly  connected  to 


134 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


the  plungers  or  piston-rods  of  the  engine.  Fig.  144  illustrates  the 
Davie  hydraulic  pumping-engine,  which  is  of  this  class.  A  modifi- 
cation of  this  type  was  used  in  the  Combination  shaft,  Virginia  City, 
Nev.  The  pumps  at  the  lowest  level  raised  the  water  over  1,400'  to  the 
level  of  the  Sutro  Tunnel.  There  were  two  independent  pumping- 
engines  at  the  station,  each  capable  of  making,  at  a  maximum,  about  ten 


■Si. 


Fig.  146. 

single  strokes  per  minute.  An  interesting  fact  is  said 
to  have  been  noticed  when  both  engines  were  running, 
namely:  that  they  would  adjust  themselves  to  make 
their  strokes  in  rotation.  This  might  be  explained  by 
the  inertia  of  the  water  in  the  driving-column.  Air- 
chambers  were  not  used  at  first,  but  were  found 
necessary,  on  account  of  the  frequent  breakage  of  pipes. 

3.6.03.  The  hydraulic  pumps  of  the  Combination  shaft  at  first  were 
operated  by  artificial  excess  of  pressure  of  about  1,000  lbs.  generated 
by  a  steam  engine  driving  pumps  at  the  surface  and  forcing  the  water 
into  an  accumulator-chamber  charged  with  compressed  air.  The  surface 
pumping-engine  was  of  the  Davie  type,  and  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  145. 
By  this  arrangement  the  pressure-water  was  used  over  and  over  again, 
but  the  expense  of  operation  is  said  to  have  been  over  $6,000  per  month, 
while  the  excessive  pressure  caused  frequent  breakages.     The  natural 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  135 

pressure  of  the  city  water  was  afterwards  used  to.  drive  the  pumps,  and 
the  total  cost  of  operation,  including  that  of  power-water,  was  reduced 
to  about  $1,000  per  month.  The  plant  was  perhaps  the  largest  hydrau- 
lic mine  pumping-plant  ever  built.  Its  first  cost  amounted  to  about 
one  quarter  of  a  million  of  dollars.  The  Knight  hydraulic  pumping- 
engine  described  in  2.5.87,  2.5.38,  and  2.5.39,  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  116, 
could  also  be  coupled  directly  to  underground  pumps. 

8.6.04.  Valveless  Engines.  An  example  of  the  hydraulic  rod  system, 
though  not  operating  a  direct-acting  pump-engine,  exists  at  the  New 
Almaden  Quicksilver  Mine,  Santa  Clara  County,  California.  Fig.  146 
illustrates  the  principle  of  the  arrangement.  It  is  a  horizontal  trans- 
mission, and  therefore  requires  only  a  single  reciprocating  column,  the 
weight  of  rod  and  other  parts  being  sufficient  to  accomplish  the  return- 
stroke  of  the  water-column. 

3.6.05.  Where  there  is  no  weight  of  pumprods  or  other  parts  to  be 
raised,  and  also  where  the  transmission  is  vertical,  two  balanced 
reciprocating  columns  of  water  are  used. 

3.6.06.  No  admission-  and  discharge-valves  are  required  with  engines 
operated  by  reciprocating  columns  of  water,  nor  with  the  plungers  used 
to  reciprocate  the  water.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  keep  the  volume 
of  water  in  the  reciprocating  columns  constant,  so  that  the  stroke  of  the 
underground  engine  and  pump  will  not  exceed  the  proper  limits  at 
either  end.  Leakage  will  reduce  the  amount  of  water  in  the  columns, 
and  this  must  be  made  up  by  forcing  in  a  small  quantity,  either  with 
each  stroke  or  continuously.  As  it  is  not  possible  to  adjust  the  quantity 
to  be  added  so  as  to  be  exactly  equal  to  the  leakage,  it  is  necessary  to 
force  in  an  amount  slightly  greater  than  the  leakage,  and  to  get  rid  of 
the  excess  by  causing  the  underground  engine  to  open  a  valve  at  the  end 
of  the  stroke  whenever  this  passes  the  prescribed  limit.  By  adjusting 
these  valves  so  that  the  volume  swept  through  by  the  working  piston  or 
plunger  of  the  underground  pump  will  be  somewhat  less  than  that  of 
the  driving-pump  at  the  surface,  the  latter  can  draw  in  the  necessary 
replenishing  water  during  the  suction-stroke  through  a  small  suction-  or 
check-valve.  In  the  single-column  hydraulic  transmission,  illustrated 
in  Fig.  146,  and  referred  to  before,  the  stroke  of  the  underground  engine 
is^regulated  by  admitting  a  small  quantity  of  water  under  greater  press- 
ure than  that  existing  in  the  pump,  by  means  of  some  such  arrangement 
as  the  slide-valve  at  the  side  of  the  working-barrel.  The  same  arrange- 
ment permits  the  escape  of  a  small  quantity  of  water  near  the  upper 
end  of  the  stroke.  The  slide-valve  is  shown  to  be  operated  by  means  of 
a  tappet-rod  from  an  arm  at  the  top  of  the  plunger. 

3.6.07.  General  Remarks.  Hydraulic-pressure  operation  of  pumps 
requires,  in  most  cases,  very  expensive  plants  for  any  considerable 
depth,  as  the  parts  have  necessarily  to  be  made  heavy  so  as  to  resist  not 
only  the  static  pressure,  but  also  the  strains  due  to  water-ram.  In  the 
matter  of  water-ram,  the  artificial-pressure  systems  are  in  a  better  posi- 
tion than  those  employing  a  natural  fall,  because  the  mass  of  water 
moved  and  arrested  is  less.  AVhere  two  hydraulic  engines  are  supplied 
with  pressure  from  the  same  column,  and  are  operating  so  that  their 
strokes  occur  in  rotation,  the  column  of  water  is  kept  continuously  in 
motion,  and  the  danger  from  water-ram  is  much  reduced;  so  that  in 
general,  the  engines  can  run  faster  under  such  conditions. 

10 — MD 


136 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


3.6.08.  Hydraulic  pressure  is  not  suitable  for  sinking  purposes, 
except  perhaps  for  moderate  depths,  and  in  such  cases  generally  artifi- 
cial pressure  will  be  better  adapted,  because  the  pressure  can  be  suited 
to  the  increasing  depth. 

3.6.09.  Clean  water  only  should  be  used,  but  drain-cocks  should  be 
fitted  at  points  where  sediment  is  likely  to  accumulate  in  the  engine. 
Plungers  are  much  preferable  to  pistons,  for  the  same  reasons  as  with 
pumps. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Pump-Stations. 

3.7.01.  The  stations  for  direct-driven  pumps  require  a  greater  amount 
of  excavation  than  for  Cornish  pumps,  because  they  have  to  accommo- 


FiG.  147. 

date  the  pumps  as  well  as  the  tanks,  and  must  also  leave  room  to  get 
around  the  pumps  conveniently.  Where  several  large  pumps  are  in 
one  station,  and  the  latter  is  in  ground  requiring  support,  it  is  gener- 
ally best  to  arrange  the  pumps  in  line  and  not  side  by  side,  so  that  the 
station  assumes  more  the  shape  of  a  tunnel,  in  which  the  ground  can  be 
more  easily  and  cheaply  supported. 

3.7.02.  If  the  rock  is  very  hard,  so  that  the  excavation  cannot  be 
extended  at  a  later  period  without  blasting,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  ex- 
cavate it  larger  than  required  at  first,  so  that  additional  pumps  can 
be  quickly  added  in  case  of  requirement. 

3.7.03.  The  tanks  are  often  placed  below  the  pumps,  as  in  Figs.  138 
and  147.  They  should,  if  possible,  be  large,  to  afford  a  chance  for  set- 
tling of  sand.  Fig.  147  illustrates  a  pump-station  with  rotative  pumps 
at  the  mines  of  the  Boston  and  Montana  Gold  and  Silver  Mining  Com- 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


137 


pany,  of  Butte,  Montana.  In  the  pump-station  of  the  Crown  Point 
incline  shaft,  at  Virginia  City,  Nevada,  shown  in  Fig.  148,  the  tank  was 
placed  at  a  level  above  the  pump. 

3.7.04.     The  facility  with  which  direct-driven  pumps  can  be   regu- 


lated, so  as  to  adapt  their  work  without  great  reduction  in  efficiency  to 
the  inflow  of  water,  constitutes,  where  pumps  have  to  be  used  at  different 
levels,  one  of  the  most  striking  advantages  over  the  rod-pumping  sys- 
tems, in  which,  as  described  in  2.4.12  and  2.6.03,  the  relative  regulation 
of  the  pumps  is  effected  by  returning  a  part  of   the  water  pumped  by 


138  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

those  pumps  for  which  the  speed  is  greater  than  required,  but  whose 
speed  is  necessarily  the  same  as  that  of  the  pump  having  the  greatest 
quantity  of  water  to  handle. 

3.7.05.  As  direct-driven  pumps  can  be  constructed  for  very  high  lifts, 
the  capacity  of  pumps  at  any  station  within  the  limits  of  admissible 
lift  need  only  be  sufficient  to  handle  the  water  received  into  the  tank  at 
that  station,  and  not,  as  in  the  Cornish  system,  arranged  so  that  the 
upper  pumps  handle  the  water  coming  in  at  their  stations,  as  well  as 
that  supplied  by  the  lower  pumps.  Only  the  column-pipe  and  power- 
pipe  have  to  be  increased  above  the  points  where  the  pumps  connect,  to 
adapt  the  pipes  to  the  greater  quantity  of  flow. 

3.7.06.  Subdivision  of  the  pumping  capacity  of  a  station  is  generally 
advisable,  as  it  affords  a  chance  of  making  repairs  on  one  of  the  pumps, 
while  the  other  can  be  forced  a  little  to  do  the  entire  pumping  duty 
during  this  time.  Where  two  pumps  are  connected  to  cranks  at  right 
angles,  they  should  be  arranged  so  that  either  one  of  them  can  be  cut  off 
from  communication  with  power-  and  delivery-pipes.  With  steam- 
driven  pumps,  in  which  low  speed  is  attended  with  greater  steam  loss 
from  the  initial  condensation,  the  subdivision  into  several  units  affords 
the  chance  of  a  more  advantageous  rate  of  operation  by  shutting  down 
one  part  of  the  plant  when  the  inflow  of  water  becomes  reduced. 

3.7.07.  Direct-driven  station  pumps  obstruct  the  shaft  only  to  the 
extent  of  their  piping,  thus  leaving  the  largest  part  of  the  shaft  free  for 
the  operation  of  a  cage,  Avhich  is  of  advantage  in  affording  rapid  commu- 
nication between  the  different  stations.  The  free  space  in  the  shaft  is 
also  needed  for  hoisting  the  sinking-pump  in  case  of  requirement. 
Crooked,  small,  or  inclined  shafts  present  disadvantages  to  the  rod- 
pumping  system,  while  direct-driven  pumps  are  little  affected  by  such 
conditions. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


139 


SECTIO]Sr  IT^. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Underground  Geared  and  Belted  Crank-Driven  Pumps, 

4.1.01.  These  are  chiefly  used  where  electric  motors,  or  waterwheels 
under  very  high  heads,  constitute  the  driving  power,  though  they  can 
also  be  operated  economically  by  steam  or  air  engines.     Electric  motors 


Fig.  149. 

and  waterwheels  used  underground  generally  require  to  make  a  great 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute.  Although  the  short-stroke  pumps 
employed  permit  a  greater  number  of  revolutions  than  those  of  long 
stroke,  pumps  driven  by  these  two  kinds  of  motors  must  generally  be 
compound-geared,  as  the  electrically-driven  pump  shown  in  Fig.  149,  in 
order  to  get  the  proper  reduction  to  the  speed  admissible  for  the  pump. 
4.1.02.  It  is  important  that  the  resistance  during  one  revolution  of 
the  pump-crank  be  as  uniform  as  possible,  where  waterwheels  or  electric 
motors  furnish  the  driving  power;  otherwise,  the  power  will  be  applied 
with  loss  of  efficiency.  For  this  reason  such  pumps  are  usually  of  the 
duplex  or  triple  form.  The  duplex  form  may  be  used  where  the  pumps 
are  double-acting,  like  piston  pumps,  or  differential  plungers,  as  in  Fig. 
128.  The  most  uniform  resistance  is  afforded  by  the  triple,  single- 
acting,  plunger  pump,  a  type  of  which  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  150.  This 
arrangement  gives  six  maxima  and  six  minima  of  pressure  during  one 
revolution,  the  maxima  being  only  about  5^%  above  the  average 
pressure,  and  the  minima,  which  are  of  shorter  duration,  10-|%  below  it. 
A  flywheel  mounted  on  the  rapidly  revolving  motor-  or  wheel-shaft 
would  further  aid  in  equalizing  the  resistance.      Belt-driven   pumps 


140 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


should  also  have  a  very  uniform  resistance,  so  as  to  prevent  the  whip- 
ping of  the  belt,  which  hastens  its  destruction. 

4.1.03.  The  high-speed  gears  should  be  carefully  cut  in  a  gear-cutter. 
The  pinions  should,  if  possible,  be  made  of  more  durable  material  than 
the  gear,  because  the  teeth  are  subjected  to  greater  wear.     Rawhide  or 


Fig.  150. 


bronze  pinions  are  generally  used  on  the  armature-  or  waterwheel-shaft. 
Sometimes  also  the  gear  driven  by  a  high-speed  metal  pinion  is  made 
with  wooden  cogs,  as  in  Fig.  151.  For  the  slow  gearing,  double-angle 
teeth  (as  in  Fig.  152)  are,  if  well  made,  the  best,  because  they  can  be 
of  finer  pitch  for  the  same  strength.  The  finer  division,  and  also  the 
continuous  contact  on  the  pitch  line,  cause  such  gears  to  run  with  very 
little  noise.  If,  however,  angle-tooth  gears  are  badly  made,  so  that,  for 
example,  the  angles  of  the  teeth  do  not  lie  in  the  same  plane  of  rota- 
tion, then  such  gears  are  worse  than  simple  spur  gears,  because  they 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


141 


will  be  thrown  from  side  to  side  as  they  revolve  and  cause  noise  in 
working.  For  operation  by  steam  or  compressed-air  engines,  which 
make  a  less  number  of  revolutions  than  either  waterwheels  or  electric 


motors,  the  pumps  are  either  single-geared  or  only  driven  by  belts  on  a 
•Dullev  fixed  on  the  pump  crank-shaft. 

4  1  04  Waterwheels  used  for  driving  pumps  underground  require  a 
head  much  greater  than  at  the  surface,  because  they  have  to  drive  pumps 
which  must  deliver  at  the  surface  not  only  the  water  of  tbe  mme  but 
also  that  discharged  from  the  waterwheel.     Such  a  method  of  operation 


142  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

would  therefore  only  find  application  for  a  moderate  pumping-depth, 
and  in  this  case  the  pumprod  system  would  generally  be  preferable. 
There  is, 'therefore,  not  much  chance  for  the  application  of  water  wheels 
to  driving  pumps  underground. 

4.1.05.  As  ordinarily  constructed  and  coupled  up  with  their  driving- 
engines  or  -motors,  the  crank-driven  pumps  admit  of  no  great  variation 
in  capacity.  The  crank-length  is  fixed,  so  that  no  adjustment  of  length 
of  pump-stroke  can  be  made.  Electric  motors  cannot  be  varied  in  speed 
in  very  wide  limits.  With  waterwheels  it  can  be  done,  but  not  without 
very  considerably  reducing  the  efficiency.  Steam  and  compressed-air 
engines,  however,  if  of  the  duplex  or  compound  form,  with  cranks  at 
right  angles,  can  be  run  at  almost  any  speed,  and  are,  therefore,  better 
adapted  for  operating  crank-pumps  at  variable  speed. 

4.1.06.  Electrically-driven  sinking-pumps  are  necessarily  of  the 
geared-crank  type.     The  writer  knows  of  no  case  of  their  use  in  practice. 

They  would  scarcely  seem  to  be  adapted 
to  the  hard  usage  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject in  this  kind  of  work. 

4.1.07.      An   efficient    pumping-plant 

can  be  made  with  geared  pumps  driven 

by  high-duty  engines  or  motors.     Some 

■pjg  j5^  three-crank  plunger  pumps  have  been 

run  at  piston  speeds  of  460'  per  minute 
without  water-ram.  This  is  due  to  the  very  uniform  motion  of  the 
water  in  the  suction-  and  discharge-pipes.  Large  valves  and  proper 
air-chambers  naturally  contribute  to  attain  the  best  results. 

4.1.08.  Electricity  is  not  well  adapted  as  an  economical  means  of 
transmitting  power  to  reciprocating  pumps  which  have  a  variable  duty, 
unless  they  can  be  run  intermittently,  permitting  the  water  to  accumu- 
late in  large  reservoirs  or  tanks  during  the  time  of  stoppage.  The 
method  of  applying  electricity  to  pumping  machinery  will  have  to  be 
much  improved  before  it  can  bear  out  the  claims  of  efficiency  made  by 
electrical  companies.* 

4.1.09.  The  Xllth  Report  of  the  State  Mineralogist,  published  in 
1894,  contains  an  interesting  chapter,  entitled  "  Electric  Power-Trans- 
mission Plants,  and  the  Use  of  Electricity  in  Mining  Operations,"  by 
Thomas  Haight  Leggett,  in  which  a  few  electric  pumping  installations 
are  mentioned.  The  reader  is  referred  to  that  ably  written  article  for 
further  details  on  this  subject. 

*Two  electrically-driven  pumps  are  in  use  at  the  Golden  Banner  Mine,  near  Oroville, 
Butte  County,  California,  where  other  electrical  appliances  have  been  installed. 


mmnM 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


143 


SECTIOIST    ^. 


BAILING-TANKS. 


5.1.01.     The  simplest  method  of  raising  water  from  deep  mines  is  by 
means  of  bailing-tanks,  which  may  take  the  water  either  from  station 


Fig.  153. 


Fig.  154. 


reservoirs  or  from  the  sump.  In  the  latter  case  they  are  either  made  self- 
filling  or  are  filled  by  means  of  pumps  or  other  contrivances.  Rapid 
filling  of  bailing-tanks  is  very  important.  Figs.  153  and  154  illustrate 
types  of  tanks  fitted  with  a  valve  in  the  bottom,  which  opens  of  itself 
when  the  tank  sinks  into  the  sump-water.  Such  a  method  requires  a 
considerable  depth  of  sump  in  order  to  fill  them,  and  tanks  are  there- 
fore not  adapted  for  sinking  purposes  unless  an  artificial  method  of 
filling  them  is  used.     Means  for  thus  filling  the  tank  may  be  movable 


144 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC. 


steam  or  compressed-air  pumps,  injectors,  or  pulsometers.  These  should 
be  of  ample  capacity  so  as  to  fill  the  tank  as  rapidly  and  with  as  little 
delay  as  possible.  The  bailing-tank  in  this  method  need  not  approach 
quite  to  the  bottom,  so  as  to  cause  no  interference  with  the  other  opera- 
tions of  sinking.  Since,  however,  in  case  of  a 
considerable  rate  of  inflow,  the  water  may  rise 
in  the  intervals  of  the  trips  of  the  bailing-tanks 
to  such  a  depth  as  to  interfere  with  the  other 
work,  an  artificial  sump  is  sometimes  used. 
This  consists  of  a  tank  suspended  in  the  shaft  '| 
and  sufficiently  larger  than  the  bailing-tank, 
to  admit  of  the  latter  dipping  entirely  into  it  | 
for  the  purpose  of  filling  itself.  Pumps  or 
other   water-raising    appliances    can    then    be  | 


Fig.  155. 

operated  continuously  to  raise 
water  into  the  artificial  sump, 
thereby  keeping  the  bottom  of 
the  shaft  as  free  as  possible  for 
the  men  to  work.  The  artificial 
sump  is  periodically  lowered  as 
the  shaft  goes  down.  This  can 
be  most  quickly  accomplished 
by  attaching  it  to  the  bailing- 
tank.  Fig.  155  shows  a  double 
arrangement  of  bailing-tanks 
and  artificial  sumps  for  a  very 
large  circular  shaft  like  those 
used  in  Europe.  In  the  case 
illustrated  the  artificial  sumps 
are  suspended  by  cables  from 
the  surface,  which  serve  also  as 
guides  for  the  bailing-tank. 

5.1.02,  Bailing-tanks  are 
usually  made  of  iron.  Square 
wooden  tanks,  held  together  by 
bolts,  are  sometimes  constructed 
at  the  mine  for  an  emergency. 
They  are  not  very  durable. 
Bailing-tanks  on  the  Comstock  were  sometimes  very  large,  some  holding 
about  150  cu.  ft.  Sometimes  bailing-tanks  are  suspended  below  a  cage. 
In  such  cases  they  should  be  fitted  with  safety-catches,  so  that  the 
cage-catches  will  not  be  called  upon  to  catch  the  combined  load  of  cage 
and  tank. 


Fig.  156. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


145 


5.1.03.  Vacii,um-Ta7il-.  An  interesting  and  presumably  efficient 
method  of  filling  a  bailing-tank  rapidly  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Bacher 
for  the  sinking  of  the  Max  shaft  at  Kladno,  Bohemia,  referred  to  before 
in  this  paper.  The  bailing-tank  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  156,  and  is  called 
a  vacuum-tank.  It  consists  of  a  closed  vessel,  which  is  filled  with  steam 
at  the  surface  in  order  to  expel  the  air,  and  to  cause,  by  its  subsequent 
condensation,  a  sufficient  vacuum  to  draw  in  water,  and  thus  fill  itself 
at  a  distance  above  the  sump.  The  bottom  of  the  tank  has  an  opening 
closed  by  a  valve,  and  communicating  with  a  suction-hose  of  suitable 
length.  When  the  tank  arrives  at  the  surface  the  discharge-valve  at 
the  bottom  is  opened  by  means  of  the  lever  at  the  side,  and  at  the  same 


Fig.  157. 


time  the  steam  supply  is  coupled  on  at  the  top  of  the  tank,  so  that  the 
pressure  will  aid  in  expelling  the  water  more  rapidly.  As  soon  as  steam 
issues  at  the  discharge  both  openings  are  closed,  and  a  valve,  communi- 
cating with  the  small  reservoir  of  water,  a,  at  the  top  of  the  tank,  is 
opened  to  admit  a  spray  for  condensing  the  steam.  Arrived  at  the  bot- 
tom the  lower  valve  at  the  upper  end  of  the  suction-hose  is  opened  to 
fill  the  tank,  and  closed  again  before  the  tank  starts  to  the  surface. 

5.1.04.  Bailing- Tank  Stations.  Where  the  water  is  taken  from  some 
of  the  higher  levels,  reservoirs  or  tanks  are  built  to  collect  the  inflow  at 
that  point.  The  reservoirs  are  fitted  with  a  discharge-pipe  carrying  a 
valve  on  the  inside,  which  is  operated  by  a  rope  and  communicates  with 
a  discharge-hose  to  lead  into  the  bailing-tank  on  the  outside.  Fig.  157 
illustrates  a  reservoir  formed  by  a  masonry  bulkhead  placed  across  an 
excavation,  with  the  discharge-pipe  built  in. 


146 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


5.1.05.  Tank  Discharges.  The  discharge  from  bailing-tanks  at  the 
surface  or  at  a  drain  tunnel  must  be  effected  in  such  a  manner  that 
none  of  the  water  will  fall  down  the  shaft  again.  The  ordinary  water- 
buckets  used  in  small  workings  are  drawn  aside  and  the  water  simply 
poured  out.  The  bucket  in  Fig.  153  has  a  downwardly  projecting 
stem  on  the  valve,  which  strikes  the  floor  and  lifts  the  valve  when  the 

ii 


x 


\ 


\ 


\ 


..;«;:'-"'"""'■■  "^" 


Fig.  158. 


bucket  is  lowered  into  the  discharge-sluice,  thus  permitting  the  water  to 
escape.  Bailing-tanks  guided  in  vertical  shafts  usually  have  side- 
valves  like  in  Fig.  154,  and  these  sometimes  have  attached  a  hose 
which  leads  the  water  into  the  discharge-sluice ;  or  a  short  sluice 
mounted  on  rollers  is  pushed  under  the  tank  to  conduct  away  its  dis- 
charge. In  inclines  the  discharge  of  the  tank  can  always  be  brought 
over  the  sluice  or  tank  without  any  other  arrangements. 

5.1.06.     The  most  rapid  manner  of  effecting  the  discharge  of  bailing- 
tanks  is  to  construct  them  like  skips,  so  that  they  will  dump    auto- 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


147 


matically  as  they  are  hoisted  above  the  collar  of  the  shaft.  Fig.  158 
shows  a  self-dumping  skip  for  a  vertical  shaft,  which  is  used  for  hoist- 
ing both  rock  and  watgr.  Fig.  159  illustrates  a  simple  skip  used  for 
inclines.  The  manner  of  effecting  the  dumping  appears  readily  from  the 
illustration. 

5.1.07.     As  a  permanent  method  of  controlling  the  water  of  a  mine, 
bailing  is  generally  economical  only  for  smaller  quantity 
of  inflow.     Such  conditions  prevail  at  some  of  the  mines 
on  the  Mother  Lode,  in  Amador  County,  California,  as  at 
the    Kennedy  Mine,  before   referred 
to,  where  the  water  amounts  to  about 
75,000  gals,  per  day  during  the  dry 
season,  and  about  double  that  amount 
during  the  wet  season.     For  large  ca- 
pacity, bailing  is  justifiable  only  as 
an  emergency  measure  to  supplement 
pumps  during  their  repair,  or  to  aid 
them  temporarily  during  a  large  in- 
flux, or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Susque- 


OOOO         POOOO 


o     o    oooooeo 


"S 


"^ 


Fig.  159. 

hanna  Coal  Company's  mines,  to  rapidly  drain  a  flooded  mine  with  the 
large  hoisting-plant  on  hand;  bailing-tanks  being  in  this  case  most  rapidly 
got  ready,  and  the  method  being  also  the  most  economical  on  account 
of  the  small  first  cost  of  plant  and  the  short  period  that  it  would  be 
required  to  be  used.  The  details  of  construction  and  method  of  operat- 
ing are  shown  by  Figs.  160  and  161,  and  the  following  more  detailed 


148 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


description.     At  the  end  of  each 
tank   is    a    large   iron    door   of 
almost  the  full  size  of  the  end 
of  the  tank,  opening  inward,  so 
that  when  immersed  the  tanks 
fill  almost  instantly.    To  provide 
for  holding  the  water  while  it  is 
hoisted  up  flat  pitches,  a  wooden 
door  is  attached  to  the  front  of 
each     tank,    opening     outward. 
Each  front  door  is  attached  to 
the  door  at  the  back  by  an  iron 
rod,  provided  with  a  sliding  link, 
so  that  the  back  door  can  open 
independently  of  the  front,  but 
the  latter  is  held  closed  as  long 
as  the  rear  door  is  closed.     This 
connecting  rod,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
160,  passes    through    the    front 
door  and  through  a  spiral  spring 
in    front    of    it,    so     that     the 
amount  of  pressure  necessary  to 
keep  the  water  from  leaking  out 
may   be    readily   applied.     The 
tanks  are  mounted  on  self-oiling, 
closed  wheels,  so  arranged  as  to 
exclude  water  from  the  bearings 
while  the  tanks   are  immersed, 
and    to    retain    the    lubricant. 
Each  tank  is  provided  also  with 
side-wheels,  vertically  over  the 
rear  axle,  which  have   a  gauge 
sufficiently   wide    to    clear    all 
other  portions  of  the  tank;  and 
on  the  surface  an  elevated  track 
is   provided,   upon  which  these 
dumping-wheels  run    and   thus 
raise  the  rear  end  of  each  tank 
as  much  as  may  be  necessary  to 
dump  the  water  into  a  trough 
between  the   tracks,  the  tilting 
forward   of   the    tanks   opening 
.the  back  door  and  releasing  the 
g  front    one.      The     tanks    while 
g  emptying  rest  on  their  forward 
§  wheels   and    on    the    dumping- 
^  wheels.     By   having  the  tracks 
at  the  surface  slightly  up-grade, 
the  tanks  will   run  back  when 
empty,  as   soon    as   the  rope  is 
slackened.    To  allow  this  dump- 
ing, the  hoisting-rope  is  attached 
to  the  tanks  by  a  yoke  reaching 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


149 


back  on  the  sides  and  pivoting  on  the  axle  of  the  dumping-wheels,  the 
tanks  back  of  the  first  one  being  attached  by  eye-bars  reaching  from 
axle  to  axle  of  the  dumping-wheels  on  the  tanks.     A  stop  is  provided. 


to  prevent  the  yoke  on  the  forward  tank  from  dropping  and  catching  in 
the  track  when  the  rope  is  slackened.  This  plan  of  "  tandem  tanks" 
was  designed  and  used  to  hoist  about  25,000,000  gallons  of  water  which 


150  MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  • 

had  been  admitted  to  extinguish  a  mine  fire  in  one  of  the  Susquehanna 
Coal  Company's  mines.  The  slope  was  small  in  section,  and  3,200'  long, 
with  single  track,  and  with  pitches  varying  from  4°  to  20°.  The  hoist- 
ing-plant consisted  of  a  pair  of  26"x  60"  direct-acting  engines  with  cast 
coned-drum,  9'  to  12'  in  diameter,  carrying  If"  steel  rope.  These 
engines  had  been  previously  hoisting  five  cars,  weighing  about  four  tons 
each  when  loaded. 

5.1.08.  Bailing  appliances  should  be  in  readiness  for  immediate  use 
at  every  mine  operated  through  shafts  or  inclines,  to  relieve  or  aid 
pumps.  This  fact,  and  the  necessity  of  being  able  to  control  large  bodies 
of  water,  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  necessary  hoisting  capacity 
of  a  mine.  This  should  generally  be  adequate  to  handle  not  only  the 
rock  and  ore  output,  but  also  all  the  water  that  may  be  expected  to  be 
encountered.  With  deep  mines  the  hoists  should  raise  the  load  to  the 
surface  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  the  use  of  direct-acting  hoists  is  there- 
fore advisable.  In  inclines  which  follow  the  vein,  and  are  therefore 
generally  crooked,  rapid  hoisting  is  not  admissible,  and  the  hoisting 
engine  should  then  be  capable  of  handling  very  heavy  loads. 

5.1.09.  Bailing  is  deficient  in  economy  for  several  reasons:  First,  the 
weight  of  the  tank  and  cable  must  be  raised,  together  with  the  water,  at 
each  operation;  second,  hoisting-engines,  if  operated  by  steam,  on  account 
of  their  frequent  starting  and  stopping,  being  thereby  alternately  heated 
and  cooled  off,  are  not  economical  steam-users.  If  operated  by  air,  they 
can  work  more  economically,  as  long  as  the  compressed  air  can  be  pro- 
duced cheaply.  Water-power  hoists  also  are  inefficient,  on  account  of 
starting  and  stopping,  and  operating  at  all  speeds  varying  from  that 
required  for  best  efficiency.  The  effect  on  economy  of  the  weight  of  the 
tank  and  cable  will  not  exist  in  those  not  frequent  cases  where  two 
tanks  are  run  so  as  to  balance  each  other. 

5.1.10.  Gasoline  hoisting-engines  have  of  late  come  into  use  to  some 
extent  to  operate  bailing-tanks  of  small  capacity,  especially  in  arid 
regions  or  places  where  solid  fuel  is  scarce. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


151 


SECTION   ^1. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Pumps  and  Other  Appliances  for  Raising  Water  from  Moderate 

Depths  in  Mines. 

6.1.01.  General  Remarks.  Appli- 
ances for  raising  water  to  moderate 
elevations  are  useful  in  many  ways 
for  mining.  They  may  be  used  in 
order  to  avoid  too  frequent  moving 
of  the  heavy  sinking-pump  by  pro- 
viding a  lighter  low-lift  apparatus, 
which  pumps  into  an  artificial  sump 
provided  for  the  sinking-pump,  or 
they  may  pump  into  bailing-tanks, 
or  into  reservoirs  from  which  the 
tanks  are  filled,  as  described  in 
5.1.01,  so  that  no  great  depth  of 
water  is  required  to  be  maintained 
in  the  sump  for  filling  the  bailing- 
tank.  The  generally  low  efficiency 
of  apparatus  available  for  such  pur- 
poses affects  the  total  efficiency  of 
the  system  but  slightly,  because  the 
amount  of  low-lift  work  is  small 
compared  with  the  rest  of  the  lift. 
Low-lift  appliances  also  find  appli- 
cation for  draining  open  workings  or 
levels  in  a  mine,  or  in  drift  mines 


in  which  the  channel  rises  and  falls, 
or  where  the  operating-tunnel  has 
been  driven  too  high.  Where  the 
water  has  merely  to  be  raised  over 
and  dropped  down  the  other  side  of 
an  elevation  less  than  the  baromet- 
ric height  to  which  water  will  rise,  . 
siphons  may  sometimes  be  used. 
The  siphon  action  should  also  be 
utilized  to  aid  the  pumps  in  all  cases 
where  water  has  to  be  raised  over 
and  dropped  down  the  other  side  of 
an  eminence.  This  is  much  more 
important  for  low  lifts  than  for  high  ones,  because  the  proportional 
reduction  of  total  lift  is  greater.  The  machines  which  find  application 
for  the  purposes  mentioned  are  reciprocating  pumps,  centrifugal  pumps, 
pulsometers,  jet-lifters,  air-lift  pumps,  and  siphons.  Some  of  these  find 
application  in  mining  chiefly  in  furnishing  water  supply,  as  for  gold- 
washing,  milling  purposes,  or  for  boiler  use. 
11 — MD 


Fig.  162. 


152 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC 


6.1.02.  Reciprocating  Pumps.  These  have  been  treated  in  former 
chapters.  For  direct-driven,  low-lift  pumps  it  is  necessary,  however, 
that  the  steam  or  compressed-air  cylinder  be  the  smaller  in  proportion 
to  the  water  cylinder,  the  less  the  height  is  to  which  the  water  has  to  be 
raised.  Some  of  such  pumps  are  single-acting,  and  utilize  only  the 
suction-lift,  being,  therefore,  only  adapted  to  pump  to  heights  less  than 
that  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  wrecking  pump  shown 
in  Fig.  162  is  of  this  type. 


CHAPTER  II. 
Centrifugal  Pumps. 

6.2.01.  Where  large  volumes  of  water  require  to  be  raised  to  moderate 
elevations,  centrifugal  pumps  are  usually  the  cheapest,  and,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  the  most  efficient  machines.    They  are  also  well  adapted 


Fig.  163. 

to  handling  muddy  and  sandy  water,  and  may  deliver  gravel  and  even 
cobbles  just  large  enough  to  pass  through  them. 

6.2.02.  The  action  of  a  centrifugal  pump  may  be  best  described  by 
reference  to  Fig.  163,  in  which  a  is  a  casing,  within  which  revolve  the 
paddles  h.  Assuming  the  pump  to  be  primed  and  the  casing  to  be  filled 
with  Avater,  the  latter  will  have  imparted  to  it  the  rotary  motion  of  the 
paddles,  by  virtue  of  which  centrifugal  force  or  pressure  is  exerted 
within  the  fluid,  so  that  it  will  escape  with  that  force  at  any  outlet,  as 
at  c.  If  the  outlet  communicate  with  an  ascending  pipe,  the  liquid 
will  rise  in  it  to  a  height  determined  by  the  amount  of  centrifugal  force. 
The  latter  is  the  greater,  the  greater  the  circumferential  velocity  of  the 


MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC. 


153 


CO 


O 

M 
1^ 


154 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC, 


paddles.     If  there  were  no  unavoidable  efficiency-losses,  the  relation  of 
the  total  lift  h  to  the  circumferential  velocity  V  would  be  expressed  by 

the  formula  h 


72 


The  lift 


XT' 2 

g^ .     In  practice,  h  is  only  about  f  or  |  of  g| , 

h  is  the  height  to  which  the  fluid  will  rise  in  the  pipe  when  there  is  no 
discharge  from  the  latter,  or  when,  in  case  of  a  discharge,  the  liquid  is 
caused  to  lose  its  energy  of  motion  by  being  introduced  from  the  space 
between  the  paddles  into  a  duct  of  such  width  that  its  velocity  will  be 
suddenly  much  reduced  below  that  of  the  tips  of  the  paddles.  This 
sudden  enlargement  of  waterway  is  a  feature  found  in  most  of  the  cen- 
trifugal pumps  manufactured.  Figs.  164  and  165  illustrate  pumps  which 
possess  this  feature. 

6.2.03.     Let  us  assume,  on  the  other  hand,  that,  by  keeping  the  cross- 


FiG.  165. 

section  of  the  spiral  duct  down  to  the  proper  size,  the  discharge  is  effected 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  liquid,  which  leaves  the  periphery  of  the 
blades  with  the  rotative  velocity  which  it  has  in  common  with  them, 
retains  this  velocity  until  it  reaches  the  outlet  c  of  the  duct,  and  then 
has  its  velocity  reduced  in  a  gradual  and  continuous  manner  to  that 
admissible  in  the  pipe  by  a  corresponding  gradual  enlargement  of  a 
short  part  of  the  discharge-pipe,  where  it  joins  the  duct,  as  at  d,  Fig.  166. 
In  this  case  most  of  the  energy  of  motion  which  has  been  imparted  to 
the  water  by  the  paddles  b,  is  utilized  and  changed  into  potential  energy 
or  pressure-head  additional  to  that  due  to  centrifugal  force  alone.  This 
additional  height  h  equals  ■^,  if  the  discharge-pipe  is  so  large  that  the 
velocity  is  insignificant  so  that  h-^  =  h*     It  is  apparent,  therefore,  that 

*If  the  velocity  u  in  the  discharge-pipe  is  taken  into  account  the  equations  become 

h  —  Yl^''^  and  JT=  ll  —  — .    The  term  ^  is  the  amount  of  reduction  of  head. 
64       64  32       64  64 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


155 


in  an  ideal  centrifugal  pump,  the  head  obtainable  with  a  velocity  V  of 
the  water  at  the  periphery  of  the  paddles  should-be  2h  =  H  ^  ^.     In 

T7'2 

practice,  again  this  result  is  not  obtainable,  but  results  oi  H  =  0.86-^ 


Fig.  166. 


have  been  obtained.     It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  height 
H  is  not  reached  when  there  is  no  discharge,  because  then  the  energy  of 
flow  does  not  exist  at  c,  and  cannot  develop  into  additional  pressure. 
6.2.04.     The  advantages  of  utilizing  to  a  greater  extent  the  energy  of 


156 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC 


motion  are:  first,  that  more  of  the  work  which  is  spent  in  imparting  to 
each  pound  of  water  •  that  passes  through  the  pump,  both  centrifugal 
pressure  and  an  acceleration  from  rest  to  the  velocity  V,  is  utilized  and 
not  allowed  to  go  to  waste;  second,  that  water  can  be  raised  to  a  given 
height  H  with  a  less  peripheral  velocity  V  of  the  paddles,  which  means 


/4-  i^c^rs. 


Fig.  167. 


less  frictional  resistance  in  the  pump,  and  often  more  convenient  con- 
nection to  motors.  The  reduced  velocity  will  appear  from  inversion  of 
the  formulae  for  h  and  H. 

For  the  usual  imperfect  pumps  V=8-\/^h  theoretically.* 

For   a   properly  constructed   pump   v  =  5M\/h   theoretically,*   the 

*  Really,  if  the  velocity  «  in  the  discharge-pipe  is  considered,  V=i/Mh+u'-  and 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  157 

reduction  in  velocity  being  nearly  30%.  In  practice,  formulae  for  the 
first  case  usually  make  V=  lO^/h  or  lli/h,  while  the  writer  has  obtained 
results  with  properly  constructed  pumps  of  v=^7\/h  and  even  6.5]/ /i. 

6.2.05  Another  feature  ordinarily  met  with  m  centrifugal  pumps  is 
the  excessive  backward  curvature  of  the  paddles,  which  causes  an 
unnecessary  increase  in  the  velocity  required  to  pump  against  a  given 
head,  thereby  increasing  fluid  friction  and  helping  to  account  for  such 
relations  as  F=  lli/h.  Radial  blades  give  a  lower  value  of  V  or  v, 
but  their  inner  ends  should  be  curved  forward,  as  at  e,  Fig.  166,  so  as  to 
scoop  up  the  water  with  a  minimum  of  shock.  The  inlet  velocity  of  water 
to  a  centrifugal  pump  should  not,  if  possible,  be  much  over  3'  per  second. 

6.2.06.  Where  the  least  amount  of  fluid  friction  is  desirable  in  a 
pump,  the  runner  should  be  kept  small  in  diameter.  A  large  diameter 
of  paddles  or  impellers  is  oftentimes  required  in  order  to  keep  down  the 
number  of  revolutions  to  such  a  limit  that  the  pump  can  be  directly 
coupled  to  an  engine.  For  driving  by  an  electric  motor  the  more 
advantageous  small  runner  is  better  adapted,  as  the  speed  of  such 
motors  is  usually  high.  The  friction  will  be  less  in  the  case  of  paddles 
shrouded  at  the  sides,  as  in  Fig.  167,  than  where  they  are  open  at  the 
side,  as  in  Fig.  164.  The  open  blades,  however,  permit  less  leakage 
past  their  sides  into  the  suction-pipe  than  the  shrouded  blades,  as  the 
zone  of  action  of  the  latter  is  cut  off  by  the  shrouding,  while  that  of  the 
open  ones  extends  by  fluid  friction  somewhat  beyond  their  edges. 

6.2.07.  If  a  centrifugal  pump  is  properly  constructed  so  as  to  utilize 
that  part  of  the  energy  imparted  to  the  mass  of  water  as  motion,  it 
must  nevertheless  generally  be  so  arranged  with  reference  to  its  driving 
power  that  it  can  be  run  at  a  somewhat  higher  speed  for  a  very  short 
time,  in  order  to  start  the  flow  in  the  discharge-pipe  necessary  after- 
wards to  keep  up  the  extra  gain  in  lift.  This  increase  of  speed  in 
starting  can  be  avoided  by  providing  an  outlet  in  the  discharge-pipe  at 
one  half  of  the  total  elevation  to  which  the  water  is  to  be  pumped,  the 
outlet  being  opened  on  starting,  so  that  the  water  can  acquire  its  speed 
in  the  flaring  pipe,  after  which  it  is  closed  again,  whereupon  the  water 
will  rise  and  flow  out  at  the  top  of  the  pipe. 

6.2.08.  Unless  centrifugal  pumps  are  submerged,  they  will  not  prime 
themselves  like  a  reciprocating  pump  with  valves,  because,  in  pumping 
out  the  air  contained  in  them,  they  act  simply  as  a  fan-blower  operating 
at  the  lower  speed  of  a  centrifugal  pump,  and  are,  therefore,  capable  of 
raising  the  water  in  the  suction-pipe  only  to  an  insignificant  amount. 
Centrifugal  pumps  are,  therefore,  generally  provided  with  means  for 
filling  them  with  water,  a  foot-valve  being  generally  provided  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  suction-pipe,  in  order  to  prevent  its  escape  until  the 
pump  has  attained  its  working  condition.  The  means  for  filling  the 
pump  may  be  a  small  hand  pump,  an  ejector,  or  a  pipe  from  a  reservoir 
into  which  the  pump  delivers  its  waters. 

6.2.09.  Centrifugal  pumps  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms.  Some 
have  single  inlets,  like  the  pump  in  Fig.  164.  Others  have  inlets  at.each 
side,  by  which  construction  the  inlets,  and  also  the  diameter  of  the 
paddles,  may  be  kept  down  to  a  smaller  size  for  the  same  capacity. 
Fig.  167,  before  referred  to,  illustrates  a  pump  with  double  inlet, 
designed  by  the  writer.  It  exhibits  also  the  features  for  utilizing  the 
energy  of  fluid  motion  before  referred  to  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  166. 
The  flaring   discharge   and   radial    paddles   contributed  to  the  result 


158 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


Fig.  168. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


159' 


anticipated,  which  was  a  considerable  reduction  of  the  number  of 
revolutions  below  that  of  the  usual  forms,  like  Figs.  164  and  165', 
obtainable  in  the  market.  The  double-inlet  pumps  have  the  advan- 
tage, in  comparison  with  the  ordinary  single-inlet,  that  the  lateral 
pressure  against  the  disk  supporting  the  paddles  is  balanced.  In  the 
Richards  single-inlet  pump  the  disk  is  perforated,  as  at  N,  Fig.  164,  to 
allow  the  pressures  on  both  sides  to  equalize  to  a  certain  extent. 

6.2.10.  Pumps  designed  to  raise  water  from  wells  are  frequently 
arranged  with  a  vertical  axis,  like  Fig.  168,  extending  to  the  surface, 
where  the  power  is  applied  most  conveniently. 

6.2.11.  Usually  centrifugal  pumps  are  only  required  for  low  lifts," 
from  10'  to  20'.  They  are,  however,  capable  of  working 
efficiently  against  heads  of  100'  and  over.  For  such 
heads,  however,  the  aim  should  be  to  utilize  the  energy  of 
motion  so  as  to  keep  the  speed  and  the  friction-losses 
down  as  low  as  possible.  Heads  of  150'  have  been  over- 
come by  compounding  the  ordinary  centrifugal  pumps. 
Care  should  always  be  taken  in  compounding  to  convert 
all  the  excess  of  energy  of  motion  acquired  by  the  water 
in  the  first  pump,  into  pressure  before  it  is  led  into  the 
inlet  of  the  second  pump  with  the  proper  low  velocity. 
Fig.  169  illustrates  the  proper  principle  of  compounding 
centrifugal  pumps.  The  same  result  is  obtained  by  rais- 
ing the  water  to  half  the  total  height  by  the  first  pump, 


Fig.  169. 


and  then  picking  it  up  and  raising  it  the  remaining  half  by  the  second 
pump.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  transmission  of  power  to  two  sepa- 
rated pumps  would  be  inconvenient.  It  is  the  same  thing  if  the  water 
is  delivered  to  the  second  pump  under  a  pressure  equivalent  to  the 
head  that  it  would  be  lifted  by  the  first  pump,  if  the  second  pump  did 
not  pick  it  up  before  it  was  actually  lifted, 

6.2.12.  The  capacity  of  a  centrifugal  pump  is  proportional  to  the 
speed  at  which  it  runs.  It  therefore  also  increases  with  the  lift.  To 
increase  the  discharge  for  a  given  head  means  loss  of  efficiency,  because 
the  speed  of  the  pump  and  that  of  the  water  issuing  from  the  pipe  are 
increased  unnecessarily.  Reduction  of  capacity  by  choking  off  is  also 
attended  with  loss  by  fluid  friction,  and  besides  cannot  be  carried  very 
far  without  stopping  the  discharge  altogether.  This  quality  of  centrif- 
ugal pumps  makes  them  less  adapted  for   the   ordinary  purposes  of 


160  MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC. 

mining.  They  are  suited  for  cases  where  a  large  quantity  of  water  has 
to  be  got  rid  of  in  a  short  time,  while  the  capacity  is  kept  uniform  until 
the  supply  is  exhausted.  A  variable  quantity  of  water  can  only  be 
handled  with  best  mechanical  efficiency  by  providing  reservoirs,  which 
are  alternately  filled  and  then  drained  by  the  pump.  In  mines  the 
smaller  sizes  only  would  find  application,  chiefly  in  drift  mines  and 
open  workings,  or  perhaps  in  levels  of  mines  operated  through  shafts. 

6.2.13.  Centrifugal  pumps  may  be  driven  by  steam  or  compressed- 
air  engines,  gas  engines,  electric  motors,  or  waterwheels.  Horse-powers 
are  also  sometimes  used  for  very  low  lifts.  The  driving  power  is  either 
•directly  coupled  to  the  pump  axis,  or  it  is  transmitted  to  a  pulley  on 
the  axis  by  means  of  belting.  Where  they  are  driven  by  horses  the 
average  speed  should  be  maintained  considerably  above  the  amount 
required  to  raise  the  water,  because  the  horses  will  not  keep  up  a  uni- 
form speed,  and  will  frequently  slow  down,  so  that  the  discharge  of  the 
pumps  will  cease  altogether. 

6.2.14.  The  fact  that  centrifugal  pumps  do  not  admit  of  a  wide  range 
of  variation  of  their  capacity  requires  that  a  great  number  of  patterns 
should  be  kept  on  hand  by  the  manufacturers.  For  this  reason  the 
design  and  construction  of  the  pump  should  be  as  simple  and  inex- 
pensive as  is  compatible  with  the  other  features  to  be  attained.  Where 
eflficiency  is  desired,  it  is  generally  necessary  to  design  a  centrifugal 
pump  just  to  suit  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  to  operate. 

6.2.15.  Centrifugal  pumps  intended  for  raising  coarse  gravel,  mud, 
etc.,  like  in  dredging,  should  be  designed  with  a  view  of  adaptation  to 
the  material  to  be  handled,  wearing  qualities,  and  safety  against  break- 
downs. High  efficiency  in  consumption  of  power  is  generally  not 
obtainable  jinder  these  conditions,  and  is  also  of  secondary  importance 
here. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Jet-Lifters;  Ejectors. 

6.3.01.  These  machines  are  operated  either  by  steam  or  a  head  of 
water.  Compressed  air  might  also  find  application  instead  of  steam, 
but  no  special  apparatus  for  lifting  water  by  means  of  its  jet  action  can 
be  obtained  in  the  market.  The  common  steam-ejectors  could  be  thus 
used;  with  what  efficiency,  is  not  known  to  the  writer.  It  is,  however, 
probable  that  the  efficiency  will  be  extremely  low. 

6.3.02.  Steam-ejectors  or  water-lifters  are  simple  and  cheap  devices. 
Notwithstanding  their  low  efficiency  they  can  be  made  useful  where  effi- 
ciency does  not  cut  much  of  a  figure,  where  the  work  is  only  temporary, 
or  where  the  time  necessary  for  installation  of  apparatus  is  limited,  and 
the  suitable  operating  power  is  ready  at  hand  for  application.  An 
advantage  of  machines  of  this  class  is  also  that  they  occupy  little  space, 
and  are  very  light. 

6.3.03.  Steam-ejectors,  if  used  in  the  bottom  of  a  shaft  or  pit,  should 
not  be  connected  to  the  steam-supply  by  steam-hose,  as  the  latter  is 
liable  to  give  out  at  any  time.  When  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  ejector 
arranged  so  that  it  can  be  conveniently  and  rapidly  let  down  as  the 
work  of  sinking  progresses,  it  is  necessary  to  put  in  a  telescope-pipe 
like  those  described  for  direct-acting  sinking-pumps  in  3.2.08.     There 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


161 


should  be  a  stop-valve  close  to  the  ejector,  to  control  its  operation,  and 
one  close  to  the  boiler,  so  that  the  steam-pipe  can  be  repaired  or  extended 
when  the  machine  is  to  be  lowered  There  should  also  be  a  check-valve 
in  the  suction-pipe,  so  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  steam  being  blown 
out  through  the  suction  when  the  sump  has  been  drained.      Steam- 


wm 


m 


■  "^,>S=-''vii»(i*;'-'i^ii''' ' 


m 


ejectors  are  much  used  as  priming- 
machines  for  centrifugal  and  other 
pumps.  The  widest  application,  how- 
ever, is  for  feeding  boilers,  because  for 
this  purpose  the  energy  spent  in  heat- 
ing the  water  is  not  lost,  but  serves  a 
useful  purpose.  The  action  of  steam- 
injectors  or  -ejectors  depends  both 
upon  the  condensation  and  the  energy 
of  motion  of  the  steam  jet  as  it  issues 
from  the  nozzle.  The  colder  the 
water  the  more  perfect  will  be  the 
action.  Fig.  170  shows  an  installa- 
tion of  an  ejector. 

6.3.04.  Hydraulic  water-lifters,  of 
which  Fig.  171  illustrates  a  type, 
have  not  the  range  of  applicability  as 
steam-ejectors.  Their  construction 
resembles  that  of  the  steam-ejector. 
They  have  a  very  low  efficiency,  but 
could  find  application  for  drainage 
purposes  under  the  conditions  mentioned  in  6.3.02.  Where  heat  is 
objectionable,  as  in  the  bottom  of  a  shaft,  and  where  water-power  is  at 
disposal,  they  would  be  preferable  to  steam-ejectors.  Where  the  lift  is 
low,  the  required  driving-head  will  be  correspondingly  so.  Unless  there 
is  a  very  heavy  head,  hose  may  be  used  for  connection  to  the  supply- 
pipes,  thereby  affording  a  more  flexible  connection  than  telescope-pipes, 
which  may  be  an  advantage  in  many  cases. 

6.3.05.     Gritty  water  soon  wears  out  ordinary  ejectors.     The  nozzles 
should  therefore  be  made  of  very  hard  material  where  such  water  is  to 


Fig.  170. 


162 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


be  lifted  by  them.  Very  acid  water  has  the  same  effect,  for  which  reason 
ejectors  for  corrosive  liquids  are  made  with  hard  lead  linings,  with  por- 
celain nozzles,  or  entirely  of  porcelain. 


HYDRAULIC 

WATER  LIFTER 


Fig.  171. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Pulsometers. 

6.4.01.  The  invention  of  C.  H.  Hall,  the  piilsometer,  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  pieces  of  apparatus  for  raising  sandy  or  acid  water  to  heights 
not  exceeding  100'.  where  economy  of  fuel  is  less  important  than  quick- 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC 


163 


ness  of  installation,  and  freedom  from  risk  of  breakdowns.  When  used 
for  sinking  operations  in  shafts,  the  steam-  and  water-pipes  must  be 
arranged  the  same  as  for  other  sinking  apparatus  with  telescope  connec- 
tions, so  that  the  machine  can  be  lowered  quickly  or  hoisted  out  of  the 
way  when  blasting. 

6.4.02.  By  reference  to  Figs.  172  and  173,  it  will  be  seen  that  to  the 
tapering  necks  of  chambers  A  A  there  is  attached,  by  means  of  a  flange 
joint  B,  a  continuous  passage  from  each  chamber,  leading  to  one  com- 


FiG.  172. 

mon  upright  passage,  into  which  a  small  ball  C  is  fitted  so  as  to  oscil- 
late with  a  slight  rolling  motion  between  seats  formed  in  the  junction. 
The  chambers  A  A  also  connect  by  means  of  openings  with  the  vertical 
induction  passage  D,  which  openings  are  fitted  with  the  valves  E  E  and 
their  seats  F  F. 

6.4.03.  The  delivery  passage  H  communicates  with  each  chamber 
through  openings  fitted  with  the  valves  and  valve-seats  G  G,  of  the 
same  style  as  in  the  induction  passage.  I  I  are  valve-guards.  The 
vacuum-chamber  /  between  the  necks  of  chambers  A  A  connects  only 
with  the  induction  passage  below  the  valves  E  E.  K  K  are  doors  cov- 
ering the  openings,  affording  access  to  the  valves  and  seats  when  neces- 
sary. Vent  plugs  are  inserted  into  these  flanges  for  the  purpose  of 
drawing  off  the  water  to  prevent  freezing.  L  L  are  struts  by  which  the 
suction  seats,  valves,  and  guards  are  tightly  pressed  into  place.     N  N 


16i 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


are  bolts  by  which  the  discharge  seats,  valves,  and  guards  are  held  in 
place.  A  small  air  check-valve  is  screwed  into  the  neck  of  each  cham- 
ber A  A,  and  one  into  the  vacuum-chamber  /,  so  that  their  stems  hang 
downward.  The  check-valve  in  the  neck  of  each  chamber  A  A  allows  a 
small  quantity  of  air  to  enter  above  the  water,  to  prevent  the  steam  from 
agitating  it  on  its  first  entrance,  and  thus  forms  an  air-piston,  tending  to 


Fig.  173. 

prevent  condensation.  The  check- valve  in  the  vacuum-chamber  /  also 
admits  sufiicient  air  to  cushion  the  ramming  action  of  the  water 
consequent  upon  the  alternate  filling  of  each  chamber. 

6.4.04.  The  two  working-chambers  fill  and  discharge  alternately,  like 
in  a  steam  pump.  The  steam  enters  at  the  top,  or  neck,  and  passes  into 
whichever  chamber  is  uncovered  by  the  steam  ball-valve,  and  pressing 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water  forces  it  down  and  out  through  the  dis- 
charge-valves, and  into  the  discharge-pipe.  As  soon  as  the  water-line 
has  been  forced  downward  to  the  discharge  outlet,  the  steam  above  it 
instantly  condenses,  a  partial  vacuum  is  formed,  and  the  chamber  in 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


165 


consequence  suddenly  fills  again.  Now,  while  the  steam  was  entering 
this  chamber,  which  we  will  designate  as  the  "  left-hand  "  one,  the  steam 
ball-valve  was  seated  over  the  entrance  to  the  "  right-hand  "  chamber, 
l^reventing  the  entrance 
of  steam  thereto;  but  as 
soon  as  the  sudden  col- 
lapse of  steam  occurs, 
the  valve  is  instantly 
drawn  over  to  its  other 
seat  at  the  entrance  to 
the  "left-hand"  cham- 
ber. This  cuts  off  the 
admission  of  steam 
thereto,  and  allows  it  to 
enter  the  other  cham- 
ber and  expel  the  water 

therefrom  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for 
the  ''  left-hand "  chamber.  Steam  and  water 
occupy  the  same  chamber  successively,  and  will 
thus  alternate,  keeping  up  a  continuous  outflow 
as  long  as  steam  and  water  are  supplied. 

6.4.05.     Priming  is  performed  by  pouring  water 


0  Sl-eam  inlet 
Y       :         valve. 

^  Vil>rahno  /of/^'^e 

£  flif^vcilve.. 

/J  Si/c/'iOit-p'/i'C 


O 

Ki  K-i 

EE 

U 

W 

F 


Yedultio-r 


eau 
Air  cfiani[>er' 


.A    Bracket- fyit 


Fig.  175. 


Fig.  174. 


through  the  plugged  opening  in  the  middle  chamber,  or  through  the 
plugged  opening  on  the  discharge  outlet  side.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
replace  the  plug  quickly  after  priming.  Fig.  174  shows  a  pulsometer 
in  place  to  pump  out  a  shaft  or  well. 


166  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 

6.4.06.  While  the  pulsometer  is  capable  of  lifting  water  100',  the 
most  general  application  is  for  lower  lifts  of  25'  to  50'.  The  steam 
pressure  naturally  has  to  be  increased  with  the  increase  of  the  forcing 
part  of  the  lift. 

6.4.07.  Where  the  water  has  to  be  kept  down  close  in  order  to  enable 
the  men  to  work  in  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  two  pulsometers  can  be 
used,  one  of  which  will  operate  while  the  lengthening  of  the  pipe  of 
the  other  is  proceeded  with, 

6.4.08.  Pulsometers  are  made  in  sizes  to  meet  any  capacity,  the  tables 
of  the  chief  makers  running  up  to  2,000  gals,  per  minute.  The  steam 
consumption  is  high.  Experiments  made  in  Germany  show  consump- 
tion of  200  lbs.  and  over  of  steam  per  horse-power  of  water  lifted  per  hour. 

6.4.09.  Pulsometers  should  be  improved,  if  possible,  l)y  preventing 
condensation  of  the  steam  during  its  entrance  into  the  working-chambers. 
It  should,  after  filling  a  chamber,  be  condensed  rapidly  by  some  form 
of  spray-injection  like  that  used  in  the  Korting  pulsometer  shown  in 
Fig.  175.  The  steam  should  again  be  prevented  from  condensing  during 
the  forcing  pulsation.  By  reducing  these  two  condensation  losses  to  a 
minimum,  Korting  claims  to  have  obtained  results  of  less  than  100  lbs. 
of  steam  per  water  horse-power  per  hour,  which  is  a  better  result  than 
obtained  with  ordinary  steam  pumps. 

CHAPTER  y. 

Air-Lift  Pumps. 

6.5.01.  The  operation  of  this  apparatus  depends  upon  the  buoyancy 
of  air  introduced  into  the  column-pipe  in  bodies  alternating  with  liquid, 
the  air  forming  virtually  a  piston,  more  or  less  complete,  and  pushing 
the  water  ahead  of  it.  Fig.  176  illustrates  the  principle  involved.  The 
column-pipe  is  an  open  pipe,  the  lower  part  of  which  requires  to  be  sub- 
merged for  such  a  depth  that  the  hydraulic  pressure  due  to  immersion 
will  not  quite  equal  the  pressure  of  the  compressed  air  entering  the 
bottom  of  the  column-pipe  by  means  of  the  small  air-pipe.  The  less  the 
lift  H  compared  with  the  submersion  /(,  the  greater  is  the  efficiency 
obtained.  This  is  also  greatest  when  the  air  pressure  exceeds  but 
slightly  the  pressure  due  to  hydraulic  submersion  of  the  air  outlet. 

6.5.02.  The  air-lift  pump  just  described  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
in  the  last  century  at  Freiberg,  Saxony.  One  of  the  Siemens  brothers 
made  experiments  with  it  more  recently.  Later  still,  in  1889,  Mr.  Ross 
E.  Browne,  in  conjunction  with  the  writer,  made  a  series  of  experiments 
on  this  apparatus,  which  had  been  again  invented  and  patented  by 
Dr.  J.  G.  Pohle.  As  there  has  been  considerable  inquiry  concerning 
this  pump,  the  writer  reproduces  a  paper  prepared  and  read  before  the 
Technical  Society  of  the  Pacific  Coast  by  Mr.  Browne,  giving  an  account 
of  the  experiments  and  the  results  obtained. 

Dr.  Pohle's  Air-Lift  Pump. 

By  Ross  E.  Beownb  and  H.  C.  Behr,  Members  Technical  Society. 
[Read  February  14, 1890.] 

During  the  month  of  August  last,  the  writers,  jointly  with  Mr.  P.  M. 
Randall,  conducted  a  series  of  tests  with  Dr.  J.  G.  Pohle's  air-lift  pump- 
ing apparatus. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


167 


■IS  dia 
^'stroke 


Fig.  176. 


Figs.  176  and  177  will  show  the  simplicity  of  the  pump. 
A  good  efficiency  being  found,  and  the  apparatus  having,  for  many 
purposes,  very  apparent  advantages  over  the  forms  of  pump  in  common 
use,  it  is  thought  that  a  record  of  the  tests  miay  be  of 
interest. 

The  pump-column  is  an  open  pipe  partly  submerged 
in  the  water  to  be  pumped.  A  small  pipe  leading  from 
an  air-receiver  to  the  foot  of  and  a  short  distance  into 
the  pump-column,  delivers  compressed  air,  which  forms 
in    piston-like    layers, 

and    rising   rapidly  in  gW(?/A/£    compressor  receiver 
the    column,   does    ther""  ^ 

work  of  pumping.  The 
water  is  discharged  in 
alternate  layers  with  the  air. 

The  apparatus  tested  was  erected  without  due 
regard  to  best  dimensions,  and  we  deem  it  proper 
to  state  that  the  efficiencies  found  could  have 
been  increased  by  a  few  simple  alterations.  Pipes 
of  different  diameters  were  not  provided,  and  we 
were  able  to  change  only  the  length  of  the  pump- 
column,  the  amounts  of  submersion  and  lift,  and 
the  pressure  in  the  receiver,  hence  the  quantity 
of  air  supplied. 

The  diameter  of  the  pump-column  was  3",  of  the  air-pipe  0.9",  and 
of  the  air-discharge  nozzle  |".  The  air-pipe  had  four  sharp  bends  and 
a  length  of  35'  plus  the  extent  of  the  submersion. 

The  water  was  pumped  from  a  closed 
pipe  well  (55'  deep  and  10"  in  diame- 
ter), and  was  discharged  into  a  tank  and 
delivered — over  a  quadrantal  weir — 
back  to  the  well. 

A  long  mercurial  column  was  con- 
nected with  the  receiver  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  accurate  measurement  of 
pressure. 

The  quantity  of  air  delivered  to  the 
pump  was  obtained  by  two  methods, 
as  follows: 

First   Method. — The    cubic   contents 
of   the   receiver   were   measured.     The 
escape-cocks    from    the   receiver   were 
closed  and  the  compressor  was  started. 
Beginning  with  atmospheric  pressure, 
the  increase  of  pressure  was  noted  for 
each  thirty  strokes  of  the  compressor- 
piston,  until  a   pressure  was  reached 
beyond  that  required  in  the  pump  tests. 
The   contents  of   the   receiver   were 
117  cu.  ft. 
The  following  are  the  results  of  two  separate  tests: 
The  compressor  made  uniformly  one  stroke  per  second.     The  atmos- 
pheric pressure  was  2.51'  of  mercury.     The  air  was  unusually  dry. 
12 — MD 


Fig.  177. 


168 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 
TABLE     I. 


No.  of 
Strokes  of 
Compressor- 
Piston. 

Temperatures. 

Pressures  in  Receiver 

Above  Atmosphere. 

Feet  of  Mercury. 

Receiver. 

Atmosphere. 

Test  No.  1. 

Test  No.  2. 

Test  No.  1. 

Test  No.  2. 

Test  No.  1. 

Test  No.  2. 

0 
30 

78°  F. 

80°  F. 

75°  F. 

77°  F. 

0 
(0.76)? 
1.72 
2.48 
3.24 
3.95 
4.67 
5.34 

0.01 
0.94 

60 

1.77 

90 

2.56 

120 
150 

3.31 
4.08 

180 

4.81 

210 

5.54 

240 

6.00         !        6.29 

270 

86° 

88° 

75° 

77° 

6.66 

7.00 

These  data  formed  the  basis  for  calculating  the  number  of  pounds  of 
air  delivered  per  piston  stroke  of  the  compressor,  to  the  receiver  at  any 


from  Gompressor 


to  pump 


Fig.  178. 


required  pressure.     An  average  of  the   results   of  the   two   tests   was 
adopted.     The  following  table  gives  the  values  obtained: 


TABLE    IL 


Pressure  in  receiver  above  atmosphere.) 

Lbs.  per  square  inch.  f  " ' 

Lbs.  of  air  delivered  per  stroke  of  compressor  — 


0 
104 


5 
.098 


10 
.093 


15 

,088 


20 
.083 


25 

,081 


30 
,079 


35 

.077 


40 
.076 


Second  Method. — A  small  auxiliary  chamber  B  was  attached  to  the 
receiver.  (See  Fig.  178.)  Compressed  air  entering  this  chamber  es- 
caped into  the  atmosphere  through  a  carefully  measured  circular  orifice 
in  thin  plate.  After  a  pump  test  had  been  completed,  the  compressor 
was  kept  running,  cock  C  was  closed,  and  cock  A  opened  and  adjusted 
until  the  conditions  in  the  pump  test,  regarding  number  of  strokes  of 
compressor  per  minute  and  the  pressure  in  the  receiver,  were  repeated 
and  maintained. 

The  pressures  and  temperatures  of  the  compressed  air  in  chamber  B 
and  of  the  atmosphere,  furnished  the  data  upon  which  to  base  a  cal- 
culation of  the  quantity  of  air  escaping  through  the  circular  orifice. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,    ETC. 


169 


This  quantity  was  evidently  the  same  as  that  supplied  in  the  pump 
test.  Such  tests  were  made  from  time  to  time,  and  served  to  check  the 
values  taken  from  Table  II.  A  few  of  these  are  given  below.  Diameter 
of  orifice  was  0.391".  Atmospheric  pressure,  14.7  lbs.  per  square  inch. 
Weisbach's  and  Zeuner's  coefficients  of  efflux  were  used. 


TABLE  III. 


No .  of 
Pump 
Test. 


No.  of 

strokes 
of  Com- 
pressor 

per 
Minute. 


Pressures  above 

Atmosphere,  lbs.  per 

sq.  in. 


Receiver. 


Chamber 
B. 


Temperature  Fahr. 


Lbs.  of  Air  Deliv- 
ered per  Second. 


Receiver. 


Chamber 
B. 


Atmos- 
phere. 


Table  II. 


Orifice 
Test. 


1 

fiO 

31.1 

20.2 

77° 

77° 

68° 

.073 

.075 

5 

60 

30.6 

20.3 

74 

73 

73 

.073 

.075 

10 

60 

24.1 

21.7 

73 

75 

74 

.031 

.077 

Fig.  179. 

The  engine  used  to  drive  the  compressor  was  built  for  ten  times  the 
power  actually  applied  to  the  compressor,  hence  a  test  of  the  efficiency 
of  the  entire  plant  was  not  made. 

Table  IV  gives  the  results  of  the  pump  tests.  The  "  efficiency  of  the 
pump"  is  based  upon  the  least  work  L  theoretically  required  to  com- 
press the  air  and  deliver  it  to  the  receiver.     (See  Fig.  179.) 

Atmospheric  conditions  =  po,  to. 
Receiver  conditions         =  pi,  ti. 

The  values  given  in  the  table  take  no  cognizance  of  the  losses  of  power 
in  the  engine  and  compressor. 

If  we  assume  the  efficiency  of  a  suitable  compressor  to  be  70%,  the 
efficiency  of  the  pump  and  compressor  together  would  be  70%  of  that 
given  in  the  table  for  the  pump  alone. 


170 


MINE    DEAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


TABLE  IV. 


p 
p 

wp 

CO 
'^  o 

H 

1  o 

;  o 

'  o 

:  0 

;  V 
.  't 

,    a 

1  Vi 

1  O 

1  t-j 

M  ^ 
R  CO 

11 

ETCO 

CD  '-^ 

CTCO 
M  o 
■  (0 

-.o 

Tempera- 
tures Fahr. 

p 

CD 

•-s 

P. 
c-t- 

m 

»-" 

CD 
CD 

c 
B 

CO 

o 

p 

p- 

i 

CD 

ix  v: 

•  a: 

■^  S 

►?§ 
•-I 

"•(0 

P  M3 
■   -P 

.  o 
■  p 
;  g. 

:  p' 

I  «-♦■ 
;  o 

I  p- 

■d  CO 
CO  -• 
p-)TO 
w  V 
CO  "■ 

i  t. 

I  *^ 

:  03 
■  p 
!  « 

.  V 
1  1— ; 

1  5' 

1  P' 

;  c^ 

p 

CO 

p 
E 
"p 

CO 

p. 
o 

p 
p- 

r+ 

•P 
CO 

•-1 

Ui 
CO 

n 

Work  of  Water-Lift  W,  ft.  lbs. 
per  sec - 

sion  L,  ft.  lbs.  per  sec --. 

to 

p 

5' 

0? 

2. 

V 

-4- 

SI 

CO 

co_ 
< 

CO 

»-1 

> 

g 
o 

CO 

■o 

CO 
•-1 
CO 

p 

CO 

CD 

P 
O 
•< 

a 

ID 
P 

B 
•p 

p 
•p 

CO 

•-i 

CO 
e-». 

1 

60 

31.1 

77 

68 

68 

75.2 

53.0 

23.0 

.078 

.1755 

2408 

824 

1.4 

34 

2 

6U 

30.8 

77 

72 

68 

75.4 

52.8 

22.9 

.078 

.1799 

2445 

846 

a 

34 

3 

45 

27.6 

78 

71 

68 

75.3 

52.9 

22.9 

.059 

.1488 

1716 

700 

(•: 

41 

4 

31 

25.4 

77 

74 

68 

75.3 

52.9 

22.9 

.041 

.0757 

1156 

356 

(( 

31 

5 

60 

30.6 

75 

72 

67 

35.1 

53  2 

23.1 

.078 

.3136 

2459 

687 

0.6 

28 

6 

46 

26.8 

78 

74 

67 

35.2 

53.1 

23.0 

.061 

.3014 

1770 

662 

(( 

37 

7 

30 

24.9 

78 

76 

67 

35.0 

53.3 

2.3.1 

.041 

.2425 

1150 

530 

a 

46 

8 

22 

24.0 

78 

72 

67 

35.0 

53.3 

23.1 

.030 

.1941 

802 

424 

i.i 

53 

9 

60 

23.8 

78 

72 

70 

54.7 

33.6 

146 

.081 

.15,38 

2151 

525 

1.6 

24 

10 

34 

17.4 

77 

72 

69 

54.7 

33.6 

14.6 

.049 

.0824 

1056 

281 

1( 

27 

11 

23 

16.1 

76 

73 

69 

54.5 

33.8 

14.6 

.033 

.0576 

681 

196 

(( 

29 

12 

60 

18.8 

76 

71 

69 

69.9 

18.4 

10.0 

.084 

.0338 

1904 

147 

3.8 

8 

13 

33 

11.9 

76 

75 

69 

69.6 

18.7 

10.0 

.050 

.0067 

837 

29 

U 

3 

14 

60 

20.6 

80 

77 

69 

62.1 

26.2 

11.4 

.083 

.0931 

2041 

361 

24 

18 

15 

38 

15.2 

80 

74 

70 

62.4 

25.9 

11.2 

.056 

.0663 

1090 

258 

(( 

24 

16 

19 

12.3 

79 

75 

71 

62.4 

25.9 

11.2 

.029 

.0185 

489 

72 

<( 

15 

17 

60 

18.9 

79 

74 

67 

31.5 

20.1 

8.7 

.084 

.1488 

1922 

292 

1.6 

15 

18 

34 

12.3 

78 

72 

68 

31.5 

20.1 

8.7 

.052 

.1126 

860 

221 

" 

26 

19 

20 

10,0 

76 

70 

68 

31.3 

20.3 

8.8 

.031 

.0633 

432 

124 

(1 

29 

20 

60 

20.3 

69 

68 

67 

263 

25.3 

110 

.083 

.2296 

2013 

377 

1.0 

19 

21 

41 

15.8 

70 

66 

67 

26.3 

25.3 

11.0 

.059 

.2050 

1178 

336 

(I 

29 

22 

22 

12.5 

70 

67 

67 

26.3 

25.3 

11.0 

.033 

.1420 

558 

233 

1( 

42 

23 

60 

21.9 

72 

67 

69 

20.3 

31.3 

13.6 

.082 

.2954 

2050 

374 

0.7 

18 

24 

27 

15.1 

72 

67 

69 

20.3 

31.3 

13  6 

.040 

.2398 

769 

304 

a 

39 

25 

22 

14.4 

72 

67 

69 

20.3 

31.3 

13.6 

.032 

.2086 

594 

264 

(( 

44 

26 

60 

23.1 

74 

67 

69 

15.3 

36.3 

15  7 

.082 

.3540 

2105 

338 

0.4 

16 

27 

30 

17.4 

73 

68 

69 

15.3 

36.3 

15.7 

.043 

.3182 

918 

304 

U 

33 

28 

19 

16.2 

73 

69 

69 

15.3 

36.3 

15.7 

.028 

.2558 

572 

244 

(( 

43 

29 

60 

17.1 

74 

69 

69 

36.0 

15.6 

6.8 

.086 

.0693 

1818 

156 

2.3 

9 

30 

34 

10.1 

73 

70 

70 

36.0 

15.6 

6.8 

.052 

.0424 

749 

95 

l( 

13 

31 

18 

7.4 

73 

70 

70 

36.0 

15.6 

6.8 

.029 

.0093 

323 

21 

(( 

7 

32 

60 

15.8 

76 

72 

70 

41.0 

10.6 

4.6 

.087 

.0146 

1757 

37 

3.9 

2 

33 

22 

7.1 

74 

72 

70 

41.0 

10.6 

4.6 

.035 

0 

382 

0 

u 

0 

An  inspection  of  the  above  table  shows: 

First — That,  for  a  given  submersion  h  and  lift  if,  the  best  eflEiciency 
was  obtained  when  the  pressure  in  the  receiver  did  not  greatly  exceed 
the  pressure  due  to  the  submersion.* 


H 


Second — That  the  smaller  the  ratio  -j-^,  the  better  was  the  eflBciency 


H 


*NoTB. — This  was  only  true  when  the  ratio  j  was  kept  within  reasonable  limits— i.  c, 
where  U  was  not  much  greater  than  h. 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


171 


We  may  say  in  a  general  way  that  under  the  better  adapted  pressures 
in  the  receiver,  the  pump,  as  erected,  showed  the  following  efficiencies: 


FoT~=0.5. 

ii 

"  "  1.0 
"  "  1.5 
"     "      2.0 , 


50% 

40 
30 

25 


It  is  apparent  that  the  air-pipe  should  not  have  been  reduced  at  the 
discharge  end,  as  such  reduction  necessitated  a  greater  pressure  in  the 
receiver  for  the  delivery  of  the  air  to  the  pump. 

Unfortunately,  the  data  is  wanting  for  a  reli- 
able estimate  of  the  loss  due  to  the  frictional 
resistance  in  the  small  air-pipe.  A  rough  esti- 
mate shows  that  such  loss  must  have  been  large. 
The  substitution  of  a  1^"  air-pipe  in  place  of  the 
1"  would  have  appreciably  augmented  the  efficien- 
cies given  in  the  table.  In  justice  to  the  pump,  a 
considerable  allowance  should  be  made  for  this 
easily  avoidable  loss. 

The  last  test  (No.  33)  shows  a  limit  of  lift  for 
a  given  submersion,  beyond  which  a  large  excess 
of  pressure  is  required  to  pump  even  an  insig- 
nificant quantity  of  water. 

For  good  efficiency,  it  becomes  necessary  that 
the  lift  should  not  be  very  great  as  compared 
with  the  submersion. 

Where  a  shallow  sump  only  is  available  to 
pump  from,  and  a  considerable  lift  is  to  be  made, 
Dr.  Pohle  introduces  an  auxiliary  pipe  to  receive 
the  water,  after  being  pumped  to  a  small  height, 
and  act  as  pump-well  for  a  higher  lift.  (See 
Fig.  180.) 

We  have  not  attempted  an  analytic  treatment 
of  the  action  of  this  pump.  Such  treatment 
would  have  little  value  without  coefficients,  de- 
rived from  a  more  comprehensive  set  of  tests. 

The  simplicity  of  this  pump  commends  it  for 
many  uses. 

Among  the  numerous  applications  which  Dr. 
Pohle  proposes  for  this  air-lift  may  be  men- 
tioned: the  drainage  of  mines;  the  supply  of 
water  from  deep  wells;  the  lifting  of  liquids  which  damage  the  working 
parts  of  the  pumps  ordinarily  used;  the  increase  of  the  lift  and  capacity 
of  other  pumps  by  introducing  an  air-jet  into  the  pump-column. 

6.5.03.  Although  the  air-lift  pump  can,  under  certain  conditions,  be 
made  a  comparatively  efficient  machine,  particularly  if  the  compressing- 
plant  is  such,  its  application  to  mine  drainage  is  generally  inconvenient, 
and  its  use  for  such  purposes  will  certainly  never  be  extensive.  It  can, 
however,  be  made  a  useful  auxiliary  to  a  sinking-pump,  where  a  flooded 
mine,  affording  a  chance  for  the  necessary  submersion,  is  to  be  pumped 
out,  and  where  air-compressing  machinery  is  at  hand.  Special  pro- 
visions of  air-compressing  plant  for  operating  the  air-lift  pump  would 
hardly  pay.  The  capacity  of  air-lift  pumps  cannot  be  varied  in  very 
wide  limits,  without  greatly  reducing  the  efficiency. 


Fig.  180. 


172 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


6.5.04.  Compressed  air  is  also  sometimes  introduced  into  the  column- 
pipe  of  a  pump,  in  order  to  increase  the  lift  beyond  that  otherwise 
admissible  on  the  pump.  This  is  probably  the  most  useful  application 
of  the  air-lift  pump  in  mine  drainage.  To  start  such  an  apparatus  the 
air  pressure  must  be  sufficient  in  the  beginning  to  balance  the  column 
full  of  water;  it  can  then  be  reduced  to  that  necessary  to  support  the 
mixed  column  of  water  and  air  when  the  flow  has  been  started.  A 
better  plan  is,  though,  to  drain  the  column-pipe  to  such  a  level  that  the 
air  pressure  will  overbalance  the  hydrostatic  head  and  start  the  flow. 
The  application  of  air-lift  pump  just  described  is  very  conveniently 
made,  as  it  requires  no  special  submersion  column. 

6.5.05.  Air-lift  pumps  must  be  placed  in  vertical  shafts.  No  data 
on  the  working  of  inclined  air-lift  pumps  are  known  to  the  writer.  It 
may  be  doubted  if  they  would  work  at  all  if  the  inclination  were  made 
appreciable,  as  the  air  bubbles  would  hug  the  high  side  of  the  pipe  and 
afford  more  chance  for  back-flow  of  water  on  the  lower  side. 


Fig.  181. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Siphons. 

6.6.01.  Though  not  a  water-ramn^  appliance  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  term,  since  the  water  by  this  apparatus  can  only  be  lifted  or  trans- 
ported over  an  eminence  limited  in  height  and  discharged  on  the  other 
side  of  it  at  a  level  lower  than  that  of  the  supply,  siphons  can  find 
application  in  many  instances  for  forming  a  water  communication  over 
an  elevation  between  two  distant  points;  also,  for  draining  levels  or 
open  workings,  thereby  doing  away  with  the  necessity  of  installing  a 
pump. 

6.6.02.  In  construction,  the  siphon  is  a  very  simple  piece  of  appa- 
ratus, but  the  conditions  that  govern  its  working  are  many,  and  it  is 
therefore  proper  to  consider  the  principles  involved,  and  the  means 
employed  in  securing  or  aiding  its  proper  action. 

6.6.03.  A  siphon  consists  essentially  of  a  pipe  curved  downward  at 
each  end,  as  shown  in  Fig.  181,  with  one  end  dipping  into  the  supply- 
reservoir,  and  the  other  discharging  at  a  level  lower  than  that  of  the 
supply. 

6.6.04.  The  height  h,  over  which  a  siphon  may  automatically  trans- 
port a  liquid,  depends,  firstly,  upon  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  to 


MINE   DRAINAGE,   PUMPS,   ETC,  173 

be  lifted.  Thus,  for  example,  a  heavy  liquid  like  quicksilver  cannot  be 
raised  by  a  siphon  over  the  same  height  as  water,  and  water  containing 
heavy  substances  in  solution  or  suspension  cannot  be  raised  over  the 
same  height  as  pure  water.  Secondly,  it  depends  upon  the  barometric 
pressure,  the  possible  lift  being  therefore  less  at  high  altitudes  than  at 
sea-level,  and  varying  also  with  the  state  of  the  weather.  In  designing 
a  siphon  which  is  to  operate  at  all  times,  it  is  therefore  necessary  to 
base  the  calculations  upon  the  lowest  observed  barometric  pressure. 
The  working  of  a  siphon  depends  also  very  materially  upon  the  temper- 
ature of  the  liquid.  If  this  temperature  be  higher  than  that  of  the 
boiling-point  which  the  liquid  has  at  the  low  absolute  pressure  existing 
at  the  highest  part  of  the  siphon,  the  liquid  will  begin  to  boil  at  that 
point  and  give  off  vapor,  which  will  fill  the  siphon  and  cause  it  to  stop 
flowing.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  shed-over  the  rising  and  high  parts  of 
long  siphons,  so  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  will  not  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  liquid.  A  similar  effect  will  be  produced  by  air  or  other  gases 
held  in  solution.  Such  gases  are  liberated  when  the  pressure  is  reduced, 
and  cause  stoppage  of  flow  in  the  same  way  as  the  vapors. 

6.6.05.  These  conditions  limit,  as  with  all  water-suction  apparatus, 
the  height  of  the  column  of  the  liquid  which  can  be  supported  by  the 
overpressure  of  the  atmosphere.  This  height  will  be  further  reduced 
by  an  amount  necessary  to  cause  the  required  velocity  of  flow  and  to 
overcome  the  frictional  resistance. 

6.6.06.  AVhen  a  charged  siphon  is  not  in  operation,  the  air  accumu- 
lates at  the  highest  point;  but  when  there  is  a  flow,  the  latter  presses 
the  bubble  of  air  ahead  so  that  it  occupies  a  position  ahead  of  the 
highest  point,  the  position  depending  upon  the  energy  of  the  current 
and  the  grade  of  the  descending  leg  of  the  siphon. 

6.6.07.  The  air  and  gases  held  in  water  are  liberated  even  at  a 
moderate  reduction  of  pressure,  and,  as  nearly  all  water  is  charged  more 
or  less  with  gases,  these  will  be  liberated  in  any  siphon,  and  will  cause 
thereby  a  gradual  increase  of  pressure,  a  little  beyond  the  highest  point, 
which  thereby  gradually  reduces  the  available  flow-producing-head,  so 
that  the  flow  becomes  less  and  less,  and  when  the  pressure  equals  the 
acceleration-head,  ceases  altogether.  Long  siphons  will  run  less  time 
in  this  manner  than  short  ones,  because,  in  the  former,  there  is  a  greater 
volume  of  water  containing  air  in  the  pipe,  and  more  time  and  surface 
afforded  for  the  liberation  of  gases  in  the  longer  passage  of  the  water. 

6.6.08.  When  the  siphon  is  not  too  long,  and  when  the  acceleration- 
head  is  sufiicient  to  give  the  water  a  considerable  velocity,  the  air  and 
gases  may  be  entrained  by  the  rapid  current  and  carried  out  at  the  end 
of  the  discharge  branch,  if  the  latter  is  not  too  steep.  In  most  cases, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  artificial  means  to  remove  the  accu- 
mulated gases,  either  periodically  or  continuously.  The  means  employed 
for  this  purpose  is  usually  a  hand  air-pump  connected  with  its  suction 
to  the  highest  point  of  the  siphon.  In  order  to  collect  the  gases  at  one 
point,  the  siphon  should  have  the  shape  shown  by  Fig.  182,  where  the 
descending  branch  falls  more  abruptly,  in  order  to  prevent  entraining 
any  of  the  air  accumulated  in  the  chamber  a.  The  pump  h  may  also 
serve  to  prime  the  siphon,  if  it  has  sufficient  capacity.  There  should  be 
no  level  pipe  in  the  siphon,  but  it  should  ascend  all  the  way  toward  the 
accumulator-chamber,  which  latter  should  present  a  large  opening  to 
the  pipe,  so  that  the  air  will  readily  find  its  way  into  it  and  not  rush 


174 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


past  into  the  descending  leg,  where  it  might  be  retained  by  the  force  of 
the  current.  Where  there  is  fall  available  for  the  water  discharged  from 
the  siphon,  it  may  be  utilized  to  run  a  small  waterwheel  for  driving,  by 
means  of  suitable  transmission,  the  air-pump  at  the  highest  point  of 
the  siphon,  so  as  to  continuously  remove  the  air. 

6.6.09.     A   siphon,   arranged  as  in  Fig.   181,   should  either  have   a 
reduced  discharge  opening  or  a  regulating  valve  at  the  lower  end,  or 


Fig.  182. 


the  descending  leg  should  be  smaller  in  size  than  the  ascending  one.  If 
such  precautions  are  not  taken,  tlie  water  may  run  out  of  the  descending 
leg  faster  than  it  can  flow  into  the  ascending  one,  with  the  result  that 
air  will  enter  by  way  of  the  descending  leg  and  stop  the  operation  of 
the  siphon.  This  result  may  be  avoided  in  any  siphon  by  always 
having  both  ends  submerged,  or  by  turning  them  upwards,  as  in  Fig. 
183.     If  a  level  line  x  y  intersects  the  two  upturned  branches,  the  water 


Fig.  183. 


will  not  run  out  of  the  siphon,  and  air  cannot  enter  it,  when,  from  any 
cause,  the  supply  level  sinks  below  the  tojD  of  the  upturned  entrance 
branch.  This  arrangement  also  secures  the  self-starting  of  the  siphon 
thus  stopped,  when  the  supply  level  again  rises  above  the  edge  of  the 
branch.  The  submerged  ends  are  advantageously  made  flaring  or  bell- 
mouthed,  so  that  the  water  will  be  gradually  accelerated  as  it  enters 
the  siphon,  and  will  leave  it  with  an  easy  flow.  In  this  manner  a  few 
inches  of  lift  or  a  somewhat  increased  flow  may  be  gained. 

6.6.10.     There  should  be  valves  at  each  end  of  the  siphon,  which  can 
be  closed,  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  prime  it,  by  filling  it  with 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


175 


water  either  through  the  plug-hole  c,  Fig.  183,  at  the 
highest  point,  or  by  means  of  the  pump.  Fig.  182.    ^ 

6.6.11.  It  is  important  that  siphons,  particu- 
larly long  ones,  should  be  absolutely  tight,  so  that 
no  air  can  enter  them;  otherwise,  this  also  will 
have  to  be  removed  with  that  liberated  from  the 
water. 

6.6.12.  Advantage  should  be  taken  of  the  action 
of  siphons  wherever  possible,  not  merely  by  them- 
selves, but  generally  more  frequently  to  aid 
pumping-plants,  the  pipes  from  which,  in  order  to 
reach  the  point  of  discharge,  have  to  pass  over 
intervening  elevations.  The  lower  the  total  lift  in 
such  a  case  the  greater  will  be  the  proportional 
gain  by  properly  arranging  the  siphon  part  of  the 
plant.  Occasionally,  also,  the  reverse  proceeding 
may  be  advisable,  and  a  large  siphon  may  be  aided 
by  installing  low-lift  pumping  machinery. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Water-Raising  Appliances  of  Small  Capacity 
Operated  by  Men  or  Animals. 

6.7.01.  These  are  more  frequently  for  temporary 
uses,  as  in  prospect  work,  or  draining  shallow  holes 
in  drifts  or  in  river  channels.  Much  of  this  work 
is  done  by  men  and  horses  or  mules,  because  its 
short  and  uncertain  duration  does  not  warrant 
the  outlay  for  mechanical  power  apparatus. 

6.7.02.  The  power  of  men  can  be  applied  in 
various  ways  to  pumping.  It  is  generally  by  hand- 
power  that  the  small  water-raising  machines  used 
in  our  mines  are  operated.  Hand-power  may  be 
exerted  in  a  reciprocating  manner,  or  rotatively 
by  means  of  a  crank. 

6.7.03.  Often  the  hand  pumps  are  constructed 
at  the  mine  to  suit  the  conditions  required.  Fig. 
184  illustrates  a  hand  pump  of  this  kind.  The 
barrel  is  an  ordinary  piece  of  gas-pipe  or  tubing. 
The  foot-valve  a  is  simply  a  piece  of  leather,  or 
sheet  rubber  cut  out  of  the  sheet,  as  shown  by  the 
figure,  and  clamped  between  two  washers,  so  that 
the  part  h  serves  as  a  hinge.  The  seat  c  is  made 
of  a  circular  piece  of  sheet-iron  with  a  central  hole 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  valve.  The  valve,  with 
its  seat  and  a  lower  gasket,  is  clamped  between  the 
flanges  for  connecting  the  suction-pipe  to  the  pump- 
barrel.  An  ordinary  vertical  check-valve  may  also 
be  used  instead  of  this  construction.  The  bucket  d 
is  made  of  a  piece  of  leather  rolled  together  in  a 
conical  form,  the  smaller  end  being  nailed  to  the 


TCJ 


Fig.  184. 


176 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


wooden  pumprod,  and  further  secured  by  marline  or  copper  wire.  The 
edges  of  the  leather,  where  they  overlap,  are  beveled  so  that  they  can 
slip  past  each  other  and  allow  the  cone  to  collapse  on  the  down- 
stroke,  so  that  it  can  pass  down  through  the  water.  On  the  working- 
stroke  the  cone  again  spreads  out,  and  the  upper  edge  is  pressed 
against  the  side  of  the  pump-barrel  by  the  water,  thus  serving  as  valve 
and  piston-packing  at  the  same  time.  By  making  the  cross-section  of 
the  rod  equal  to  half  the  area  of  the  pipe,  the  pump  will  be  double-acting, 
and  will  discharge  at  each  stroke  half  the  amount  of  water  which  it 
draws  in  during  the  suction-stroke.  Sometimes  pumps  of  this  kind  are 
made  with  wooden  barrels  of  square  cross-section.  The  pump.  Fig.  185, 
is  only  suitable  for  suction  lift,  but  can  handle  a  large  amount  of  water. 


Fig.  185. 

6.7.04.  The  work  of  men  is  most  advantageously  utilized  in  recipro- 
cating motion  of  the  hands;  that  is,  men  can  do  more  and  work  longer 
than  in  any  other  manner,  if  they  perform  the  work  with  a  horizontal, 
rowing  motion,  at  which  they  are  seated,  and  can  brace  their  feet. 

6.7.05.  In  raising  water,  the  work  of  men,  when  transmitted  by  a 
crank,  can  be  applied  either  to  bailing  by  means  of  a  winch,  or  to  oper- 
ating pumps  by  secondary  or  driven  cranks.  Where  there  is  one  double- 
acting  pump,  or  two  single-acting  pumps  with  opposite  cranks,  the 
crank-angle  should  be  such  with  reference  to  the  hand-crank  that  the 
greatest  resistance  will  occur  at  such  a  point  when  the  hand-crank  is  in 
the  most  favorable  position  to  utilize  the  effort  of  the  operator  with  the 
least  fatigue  to  himself.  Where  there  are  a  number  of  pumps  with  the 
cranks  so  disposed  relatively  that  the  resistance  at  the  hand-crank  will 
be  almost  uniform  in  the  direction  of  rotation,  a  flywheel  of  sufficient 
weight  should  be  mounted  on  the  hand-crank  shaft,  in  order  to  distribute 
the  less  fatiguing  variable  effort  of  the  operation. 

6.7.06.  The  crank  can  also  be  employed  to  operate  a  Chinese  pump 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


177 


or  water-elevator.  The  Chinese  pump,  Fig.  186,  may  be  constructed  in 
various  ways.  One  of  the  most  usual  forms  consists  essentially  of  an 
endless  canvas  or  rubber  belt  passing  over  two  pulleys,  one  close  to  the 
point  of  discharge,  and  the  other  submerged  in  the  water  to  be  raised. 
On  the  outside  of  the  belt  are  fastened  a  series  of  blocks  about  18"  to  24" 
apart.  The  upper  pulley  is  rotated  by  means  of  a  hand-crank,  or  by  a 
belt  on  a  pulley,  if  by  animal  or  mechanical  power.  The  ascending  side 
of  the  belt  is  encased  in  a  rectangular  wooden  pipe,  into  which  the 
blocks  on  the  belt  fit  as  closely  as  possible  without  risk  of  jamming  fast. 
The  blocks  in  ascending  carry  up  the  water  between  them,  minus  the 
leakage,  and  push  it  out  at  the  top  of  the  wooden  pipe.  Similar  pumps 
are  also  made  with  chain  belts  instead  of  canvas  or  rubber,  as  in  Fig.  187. 


Fig.  186. 


6.7.07.  The  work  of  horses,  mules,  and  cattle  in  raising  water  is,  like  in 
most  other  employment  of  such  animals,  nearly  always  utilized  in  the 
form  of  traction.  Occasionally  they  are  found  operating  machines  of  the 
treadmill  character,  in  which  the  animal  raises  its  own  weight,  as  when 
it  is  walking  up  hill,  except  that  the  "  hill "  slips  down  as  much  as  the 
animal  raises  itself,  so  that  the  latter  remains  in  a  fixed  position,  only 
moving  its  legs  in  a  climbing  motion  and  pushing  back  the  surface 
beneath  it.  Such  apparatus,  however,  requires  special  training  of  the 
animals,  and  traction  animals  are  therefore  rarely  used  in  that  way  for 
water-raising.  Working  animals  trained  for  traction  purposes  can 
always  be  readily  obtained.  For  this  reason,  it  is  best  to  use  such  power 
machines  for  which  the  training  of  the  animals  already  fits  them. 

6.7.08.  Animals  may  exert  tractive  force  either  in  a  straight  or  in  a 
circular  path.  In  the  former  they  work  more  efficiently  than  in  the 
latter,  because  of  the  constant  change  in  direction  of  effort;  but  in  the 
former  they  generally  require  an  attendant  to  direct  the  reversal  of  their 
motion  at  the  ends  of  the  path. 

6.7.09.  The  work  in  the  straight  path  can  only  be  used  in  bailing. 
This  application  requires  no  apparatus  except  a  sheave  and  rope,  but  is 
attended  with  some  inconvenience,  as  the  rope  and  bucket  have  to  be 
lowered  by  the  attendant.  The  work  of  animals  is,  therefore,  most 
usually  employed  by  causing  them  to  exert  their  tractive  force  in  a 
circular  path  by  means  of  horse-powers  or  horse-winches. 


178 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


6.7.10.     The  horse-winch,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  hoisting  machine 
and   is   frequently  used  for   bailing   small    quantities  of   water.     The 
animal  must  reverse  its  direction  of  travel  when  the  bucket  reaches  the 


Fig.  187. 


top,  and  again  at  the  bottom.  For  this  reason,  an  attendant  is  usually 
required  to  direct  the  operations  of  the  animal.  Fig.  188  illustrates  a 
common  form  of  horse-winch. 


MINE   DEAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


179 


180 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


»J 


'".^ 


•Sifi' 


6.7.11.  In  the  horse-power  the  animal  maintains  the  same  direction 
of  travel.  When  applied  to  bailing  it  is  arranged  with  a  geared  hoist- 
ing-drum fitted  with  a  brake  and  clutch,  or  device  for  disengaging  the 
gears.  When  the  bucket  reaches  the  top,  the  brake  is  applied  and  the 
animal  stops.  The  clutch  or  gear  is  disengaged  after  emptying  the 
bucket,  and  the  latter  is  then  lowered  by  means  of  the  brake.  When 
filled,  the  clutch  or  gear  is  again  thrown  in,  and  the  animal  started  up. 

The    horse-power 
is,  however,  better 
adapted   to  oper- 
ate     pumps      by 
means  of  cranks. 
A      usual      form 
of        horse-power 
adapted    to     this 
purpose  is  shown 
^in  Fig.  189.     The 
driving     arm     or 
radius  pole,  at  the  end  of  which  the  animal  exerts 
its  pull,  should  not  be  less  than  16'  long,  so  as  to 
modify  as  much  as  possible  the  curvature  of  the 
path.     As  the  speed  of   the  animal  is  limited  in 
doing  work,  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute 
made  by  the  arm  is  very  few.     In  order  to  secure  a 
more   advantageous  speed,  the  horse-powers,  like 
the  one  in  Fig.  189,  are  geared,  by  means  of  suit- 
able toothed  wheels,  to  a  horizontal  shaft,  which 
"^^^^^  makes  a  higher  number  of  revolutions  in  accord- 
j]:_;t^  ance  with  the  proportion  of  the  gearing      A  fly- 
\t;  wheel   is   generally  mounted   on  the    end    of    the 
shaft  to  distribute  the  resistance  and  cause  it  to 
\^^'  be  more  uniform  at  the  point  where  the  animals 
apply  their  work.     A  crankpin  in  the  side  of  the 
1^   flywheel  drives  the  pump  by  means  of  a  connect- 
14,5;  ing-rod,    sometimes    coupled    to    an    intermediate 
f4  working-beam.     Pumps    which     are    fitted    with 
^^  cranks  can  be  operated  by  rneans  of  a  pulley  and 
belt  from  the  flywheel  shaft  of  the  horse-power. 

6.7.12.  The  pumps  operated  by  animals  in  the 
manner  described  should  be  double-acting,  or,  if 
single-acting,  two  pumps  worked  from  opposite  ends 
of  a  working-beam  should  be  used,  or,  instead  of  one 
of  them,  a  balance  weight.  The  diflJiculties  of  efficiently  operating  cen- 
trifugal pumps  by  means  of  horses  were  pointed  out  in  6.2.13.  Where 
mechanical  efficiency  is  not  required,  however,  they  may,  on  account  of 
the  uniform  resistance  and  their  simplicity,  find  application  for  raising 
water  to  moderate  heights  by  means  of  animals.  Chinese  pumps  and 
water-elevators  can  also  be  readily  operated  by  horse-powers,  and  cause 
a  uniform  resistance. 

6.7.13.  Where  the  work  of  men  or  animals  is  required  for  water-lift- 
ing in  mines,  it  is  generally  needed  at  once,  so  that  there  is  no  time 
afforded  for  the  design  and  construction  of  special  machinery.  The 
plant  should,  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  on  account  of  cheapness,  be 


i^^^i 


Fig.  189. 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  181 

composed  as  much  as  possible  of  apparatus  which  can  be  obtained  ready 
from  a  stock  in  the  market. 

6.7.14.  The  power  of  men  or  animals  depends  upon  individual  qualities 
of  strength,  weight,  and  endurance,  as  well  as  upon  the  time  occupied  in 
work.  It  also  varies  with  the  manner  of  application  of  the  power,  the 
existing  temperature,  and  the  amount  and  quality  of  food.  The  power  or 
rate  of  work  of  an  individual  is  greater  with  frequent  intervals  of  rest, 
and  increases  also  with  the  period  of  rest.  The  average  daily  capacity  of 
a  man  may  be  taken  at  about  one  twelfth  of  a  horse-power,  while  exertions 
of  the  short  duration  of  a  few  seconds  have  been  noted  where  the  power 
exerted  for  the  time  being  exceeded  one  horse-power.  The  average 
power  of  a  horse  or  mule  is  about  one  half  of  a  mechanical  horse-power. 
The  average  power  of  cattle  is  less,  and  that  of  donkeys  much  less.  As 
remarked  before,  however,  these  data  are  subject  to  considerable  varia- 
tion, due  to  difference  in  individual  qualities  and  conditions. 


182  MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS  ON  MINE-DRAINAGE  PLANTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

7.1.01.  In  providing  for  the  drainage  of  a  mine  there  are,  after  fixing 
upon  the  capacity,  two  things  chiefly  to  be  borne  in  mind.  The  first  is 
the  commercial  efficiency  of  the  installation,  considered  with  due  refer- 
ence to  the  mining  risk  and  the  length  of  time  that  the  plant  will  prob- 
ably be  in  use.  The  second  is  the  degree  of  safety  against  drowning  out 
which  the  plant  affords.  Drainage  tunnels  can  sometimes  be  used, 
where  the  conditions  are  favorable,  to  partially  relieve  an  existing  pump- 
ing-plant  which  has  to  handle  a  large  quantity  of  water,  by  reducing  the 
pumping  height,  and  thereby  either  saving  expense  of  operation,  or 
enabling  an  existing  pumping-plant  to  handle  a  larger  quantity  of  water. 

7.1.02.  The  capacity  of  a  pumping-plant  should  be  liberally  meas- 
ured, as  upon  it  depends  the  welfare  of  the  whole  mine. 

7.1.03.  The  best  safeguards  against  the  flooding  of  a  mine  are  either 
large  and  rapid  bailing-capacity,  or  an  ample  pump-compartment  and 
a  pumping-plant  admitting  of  rapidly  introducing  and  attaching  to  the 
piping  movable  reserve  pumps  kept  in  readiness  at  the  surface  for  such 
emergencies. 

7.1.04.  Where  sinking  is  abandoned  for  a  long  period,  it  is  a  good 
plan,  where  the  conditions  admit,  to  increase  the  capacity  of  the  sump 
by  running  drifts,  which,  in  case  of  short  stoppages  of  the  pumping- 
plant,  retard  the  rise  of  water  in  the  shaft,  by  the  amount  of  time 
required  to  fill  them. 

7.1.05.  In  determining  upon  the  general  type  of  plant,  the  kind  of 
power  available  or  already  at  hand  may  be  of  importance.  Where  steam 
is  the  power  adopted,  and  several  kinds  of  fuel  are  available,  the  boiler- 
plant  should  be  arranged  with  a  view  of  using  either  of  the  fuels,  as 
thereby  the  competition  of  the  different  dealers  could  be  taken  advan- 
tage of  to  secure  fuel  at  more  reasonable  rates  than  otherwise.  The 
price  of  fuel  is  generally  higher  the  greater  its  evaporative  effect;  trans- 
portation, however,  is  generally  the  same  per  ton  over  the  same  route, 
so  that  the  more  high-priced  may  be  the  cheapest  to  get.  But  as  prices 
vary  the  conditions  may  change,  and  it  is,  therefore,  well  to  be  prepared 
to  take  advantage  of  the  conditions  of  the  market.  Boiler-plants  should 
be  of  ample  capacity,  so  that  one  or  more  of  the  boilers  can  be  laid  off 
for  cleaning  during  regular  operation,  while  all  the  boilers  can  be  used 
when  an  extra  flow  of  water  is  struck. 

7.1.06.  In  case  water-power  is  to  be  considered,  its  safety  against 
stoppage  from  breaks  in  ditches,  flumes,  or  pipe-lines  is  of  vital  impor- 
tance. The  possible  occurrence  of  such  accidents  may  necessitate  a  relay 
of  steam-power  to  be  kept  in  readiness,  so  as  to  prevent  stoppage  of 
pumps  or  bailing  appliances. 

7.1.07.  Where  electric  transmission  is  available  for  operating  pumps, 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  183 

it  is  still  to  be  considered  that  the  burning  out  of  an  armature  would 
hang  up  the  pumps  connected  therewith  and  expose  the  mine  to  the 
danger  of  flooding.  Spare  armatures,  with  shaft  and  all  attachments 
complete,  should  be  on  hand  for  immediate  replacement  of  the  one 
burnt  out.  The  motors  should  be  of  such  construction  as  to  admit  of 
rapidly  making  repairs  or  changes. 

7.1.08.  In  starting  a  shaft  it  is  generally  advisable  to  provide  an 
ample  pump-compartment,  to  afford  space  for  pumps  as  well  as  for  low- 
ering these  or  parts  of  them.  It  is  generally  not  possible  to  determine 
beforehand  which  is  commercially  the  more  advantageous:  to  permit 
all  the  water  from  different  levels  of  the  mine  to  collect  at  the  sump,  and 
bring  it  to  the  surface  in  as  few  lifts  as  the  kind  of  pumps  used  admit 
of,  or  to  collect  the  water  at  the  different  levels  where  it  issues,  and  from 
there  deliver  it  to  the  surface. 

7.1.09.  A  preliminary  plant  is  usually  required  before  the  plan  for 
the  final  installation  is  decided  upon.  The  appliances  for  preliminary 
use  should  be  of  a  type  and  size  most  readily  and  quickly  obtainable  in 
the  market. 

7.1.10.  Where  the  quantity  of  water  that  may  be  encountered  is 
beyond  conjecture,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  Cornish  system  is  not  advis- 
able, as  it  does  not  generally  lend  itself  to  considerable  increase  of 
capacity  without  discarding  the  entire  machinery.  It  is  also  inefficient 
where  variable  quantities  of  water  are  taken  in  at  different  levels,  because 
the  pumps  have  to  be  adjusted  to  their  proper  relative  capacity  by  per- 
mitting back-flow  of  water  already  pumped.  Where  a  Cornish  plant 
has  been  installed  at  great  cost  for  large  capacity,  its  degree  of  efficiency, 
commercially  considered,  will  decrease  considerably  when  the  quantity 
of  water  that  it  is  called  upon  to  handle  decreases,  much  more  so  than 
that  of  direct-driven  pumping-plants. 

7.1.11.  In  by  far  the  greatest  number  of  cases  the  use  of  direct-driven 
pumps  will  be  the  most  advisable;  it  is  impracticable,  however,  to  con- 
sider, in  a  general  treatise,  the  conditions  that  might  influence  the  choice 
of  the  most  suitable  plant.  Each  special  case  generally  develops  so 
many  characteristic  features,  that  only  a  careful  study  of  the  conditions, 
by  experienced  and  trained  engineers,  can  lead  to  satisfactory  results. 

7.1.12.  The  statements  of  efficiency  of  pumps,  engines,  compressors, 
etc.,  contained  in  the  many  trade  catalogues  floating  around  through 
the  mining  settlements,  must  be  taken  very  cautiously.  The  same 
applies  to  many  of  the  so-called  practical  tests  of  pumping-plants.  Such 
data  should  only  be  accepted  when  a  full  account  of  the  test  and  a  com- 
plete description  of  the  methods  and  appliances  used  in  observation, 
together  with  detailed  data  of  observations,  is  given  by  parties  who  are 
known  to  be  competent  and  disinterested  experimenters. 

7.1.13.  Generally,  plans  and  complete  specifications  having  reference 
to  the  quality  of  the  work  are  required,  in  order  to  obtain  good  work- 
manship under  the  conditions  of  keen  competition  so  prevalent  now. 


13— MD 


184  '    MmE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


SECTio:Nr  ^iii. 

APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Water-Raising  Machinery  for  Irrigation  or  Land  Drainage. 

8.1.01.  General  Remarks.  As  stated  in  the  Preface,  it  has  been  con- 
sidered that  this  Bulletin  would  be  incomplete  without  some  reference 
to  water-raising  machinery  for  other  than  mine-drainage  purposes. 
There  are  useful  machines  for  raising  water  which  can  find  no  applica- 
tion in  draining  mines,  but  which  may  be  of  interest  because  they  can 
serve,  under  certain  conditions,  to  furnish  a  supply  of  water,  when 
required,  for  other  useful  purposes,  in  mining  as  well  as  for  irrigation 
or  land  drainage. 

8.1.02.  A  feature  which  usually  attaches  to  such  water-raising 
machinery  is  that,  except  perhaps  quite  often  in  land  drainage,  it  is  not 
required  to  operate  at  capacities  varying  widely  from  those  at  which  it 
is  designed  to  give  the  best  mechanical  efficiency.  Generally,  also,  the 
conditions  admit  of  varying  the  capacity  by  varying  the  time  of  opera- 
tion of  the  machinery. 

8.1.03.  The  two  sources  of  water  supply  to  be  considered  for  the  pur- 
poses of  irrigation  or  mining  are  natural  or  artificial  watercourses  and 
bored  wells.  The  chief  sources  for  mining  supply  are  watercourses.  In 
the  mountainous  regions  wells  are  generally  of  smaller  capacity  than  in 
the  great  valleys,  and,  therefore,  are  only  rarely  utilized. 

8.1.04.  Frequently  it  is  not  possible  to  bring  the  water  by  means  of 
canals,  ditches,  flumes,  or  inverted  siphons  to  the  places  where  it  is 
required,  and  then  pumping  must  be  resorted  to,  and  the  water  conveyed 
under  pressure  in  pipes  to  its  destination.  Sometimes,  also,  the  first 
cost,  with  interest  and  maintenance  expenses  of  an  artificial  watercourse, 
exceeds  the  corresponding  items  plus  the  operating  expenses  of  a  pump- 
ing-plant.  For  land  drainage,  canals  and  ditches  are  often  impracticable, 
and  the  water  has  to  be  raised  by  machinery. 

8.1.05.  The  sources  of  power  for  operating  such  water-raising  ma- 
chinery may  be  water-power,  steam  and  gas  engines,  wind,  or  animals. 
Windmills  have  a  wide  application  for  the  familiar  small  irrigation 
plants.  Horses,  mules,  and  cattle  are  used  only  to  a  limited  extent, 
while  gas  engines  have  recently  been  applied  quite  extensively  for  small 
operations.  For  larger  plants  only  water-  or  steam-power  can  be  con- 
sidered. These  may  be  applied  to  drive  the  water-lifting  machinery, 
either  directly,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  reciprocating  or  centrifugal  pumps, 
by  means  of  transmission,  such  as  wire  ropes,  compressed  air,  or 
electricity.  It  is  often  most  advantageous  to  subdivide  the  transmission, 
so  as  to  operate  several  smaller  favorably  located  pumping  units  from 
one  large  central  power-plant. 

8.1.06.  The  kind  of  water-raising  machinery  employed  may  consist 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


185 


of  reciprocating  pumps,  including  deep-well  and  direct-driven  pumps, 
centrifugal  pumps,  water-elevators,  Chinese  pumps,  air-lift  pumps, 
bucket-wheels,  paddle-wheels,  or  rams.     The  bulk  of  these,  constituting 


Fig.  190. 


Fig.  191. 


those  which  find  application  in  mine  drainage,  have  been  described  in 
the  body  of  this  Bulletin.  It  remains  yet  to  describe  more  in  detail 
those  machines  not  treated  before,  viz.:  certain  kinds  of  reciprocating 


186 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


pumps,  bucket-wheels,  paddle-wheels,  and  rams,  together  with  such 
power  appliances  as  may  be  particularly  suited  to  operate  them,  and 
also  to  speak  of  the  machines  already  described  in  connection  with  their 
application  to  irrigation  and  drainage,  and  of  the  methods  and  means 
for  driving  them. 


Fig.  192. 


8.1.07.  Reciprocaiing  Pumps.  These  may  be  plunger  or  bucket-lift 
pumps  operated  through  pumprods,  either  for  pumping  against  higher 
heads  from  tube-  or  shaft-wells,  or  for  low  heads  in  draining  land,  as 
used  in  Holland;  or,  they  may  be  direct-driven  pumps,  similar  to  the 
types  used  in  mine  drainage,  but  permitted  to  be  made  lighter  and  with 
proportionally  smaller  steam  cylinders  to  suit  the  generally  lower 
pumping-head. 

8.1.08.  Rod-actuated  well-pumps  find    a  wide   application   on   this 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


187 


coast.  They  exist  in  various  forms,  and  of  all  capacities,  from  the 
small  windmill  pump  to  the  large  deep-well  pump  driven  by  a  com- 
pound engine,  and  similar  in  many  respects  to  a  mine-drainage  pump. 


msrnm 


-^^w^m^^^^^^t^ 


Fig.  193. 


8.1.09.  Figs.  190  and  191  illustrate  a  large-tube  well-pump  and  the 
steam  engine  for  operating  it  from  the  surface.  The  pump-column  car- 
ries at  the  upper  end  a  head,  with  outlet  at  side  and  stuffing-box  at  the 
top,  through  which  passes  a  plunger,  the  area  of  which  is  equal  to  half 


188 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC, 


that  of  the  pump-bucket.  By  this  construction  the  pump  is  made 
double-acting,  so  that  it  discharges  equal  amounts  of  water  during  both 
strokes.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  pump  resistance  itself  is 
not  equal  for  the  two  strokes,  because  the  plunger,  being  high  above  the 
bucket,  is  not  subjected  on  its  lower  face  to  the  same  pressure  per  square 
inch  as  the  top  of  the  bucket.  This  defect  will  be  less  if  the  water  be 
raised  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  top  of  the  well,  and  it  can  be 
entirely  overcome  by  making  the  plunger  larger  in  diameter  to  compen- 
sate for  the  lower  pressure,  in  which  case,  however,  the  discharge  will 


Fig.  194. 

be  more  unequal.  Continuing  the  plunger  of  half  the  area  of  the 
bucket  down  to  the  latter  will  generally  be  no  advantage,  on  account 
of  the  weight  of  the  plunger  counterbalancing  the  gain  in  water  press- 
ure. The  suction-valve-seat  and  suction-pipe  hang  simply  by  their 
own  weight  in  the  bottom  of  the  sleeve  bolted  below  the  suction-valve- 
chamber.  The  suction-valve  is  provided  with  a  long,  upwardly  project- 
ing, rigid  link,  which  hooks  into  a  similar  link  depending  from  the 
bottom  of  the  pump-bucket.  The  length  and  width  of  the  links  are 
such  that  they  are  out  of  contact  while  the  pump  is  in  running  adjust- 
ment. When  repairs  become  necessary  and  the  bucket  is  hauled  up, 
the  suction-valve  and  suction-pipe  follow  it.    Where  there  is  much  sand 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


189 


in  the  water  the  bucket  leathers  naturally  wear  out  in  a  very  short 
time.  Fig.  192  shows  a  bucket  pump,  and  Fig.  193  a  differential  plunger 
pump  for  raising  water  from  a  shaft-well.  The  descriptions  of  similar 
operating  devices  in  preceding  sections  of  this  Bulletin  make  further 
explanations  of  the  illustrations  superfluous. 

8.1.10.  Where  electric  motors  or  gasoline  engines  are  used  to  operate 
deep-well  pumps,  the  top  of  the  tube  is  arranged  with  suitable  gearing, 
as  in  Fig.  194,  the  pulley  of  which  is  driven  by  belting  from  the  motor. 
When  driven  by  electric  motors,  the  resistance  should  be  more  uniform 
than  is  afforded  by  simple  equalization  of  the  two  strokes.     If  two  wells 


Fig.  195. 


with  pumps  at  right  angles  cannot  be  used,  some  such  arrangement  as 
described  in  2.5.21  could  be  applied. 

8.1.11.  A  well-known  but  interesting  reciprocating  pump  designed 
for  land-drainage  purposes  by  the  Dutch  engineer  Fynje,  is  the  so-called 
box  pump,  a  vertical  section  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  195.  This  pump 
is  always  vertical  and  double-acting,  and  its  characteristic  feature  is  the 
arrangement  of  the  suction-  and  discharge-valves,  which  are  disposed  in 
opposite  sides  of  a  box,  surrounding  the  pump-barrel,  and  divided 
horizontally  at  the  middle  by  the  partition  F  into  an  upper  and  a  lower 
chamber.  Pumps  of  this  kind  are  inserted  in  or  built  against  a  bulk- 
head separating  the  supply-water  from  the  discharge-water.  They  are 
made  of  very  large  capacity. 

8.1.12.  Centrifugal  Pumps.  These  have  been  described  in  6.2.01  to 
6.2.14,  but  their  application  to  irrigation  and  land  drainage,  as  well  as 


190 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


to  analogous  purposes  in  mining,  admits  of  so  much  more  favorable 
arrangement  and  connection  with  power  machinery  than  for  mine 
drainage,  that  further  reference  to  them  is  of  interest.  When  used  to 
pump  from  open  watercourses  they  are  often  of  very  large  size  and 
capacity;  for  example,  the  five  pumps  at  Khatetbeh,  Egypt,  built  by 
Farcot,  of  Paris,  for  irrigating  the  province  of  Behera.  Each  of  these 
five  pumps  has  a  capacity  of  140,000.000  gals,  in  twenty-four  hours,  at 
forty  revolutions  per  minute,  and  at  a  lift  of  10'.  These  are  the  largest 
centrifugal  pumps  ever  built,  the  runners  being  over  12'  in  diameter. 
•  8.1.13.  Centrifugal  pumps  can  generally  be  operated  when  submerged, 
except  direct-driven  centrifugal  pumps  with  horizontal  axes,  such  as  are 

generall}^  employed  in  pumping  from  open  water- 
courses, which  must,  on  account  of  the  connected 
power-plant,  be  located  above  the  highest  level  that 
the  suction-water  may  be  expected  to  reach.  Where 
the  runner-axis  is  vertical,  it  may  be  made  so  long 
that  the  driving-power  connected  to  its  upper  end 
shall  always  be  above  reach  of  the  highest  suction- 
water-level. 

8.1.14.  It  is  a  good  plan,  particularly  for  high 
lifts,  to  use  a  check-valve  in  the  discharge-pipe,  and 
to  arrange  an  air-chamber  above  it,  as  in  Fig.  196, 
so  as  to  cushion  the  column  of  water  which  falls  back 
and  closes  the  check-valve,  as  soon  as  the  pump  slows 
down  below  a  certain  speed.  The  check-valve  swings 
clear  of  the  current  when  open,  so  that  the  sand  and 
gravel  in  the  water  do  not  wear  its  face  out  too  soon. 

8.1.15.  Centrifugal    pumps,   when   employed    to 


draw  water  from  bored  wells,  necessarily  do  so  by 
suction.  When  the  suction-distance  to  the  water- 
level  in  the  well  exceeds  the  power  of  the  pump  to 
lift  water  in  this  way,  which  is  generally  at  about 
20',  the  centrifugal  pump  is  placed  lower  down  by 
preparing  a  dug  well  or  shaft  for  its  reception,  sev- 
eral tube  wells  being  sunk  50'  to  150'  below  the 
bottom  of  the  pit.     In  most  cases  such  pumps  are 

arranged  with  a  vertical  axis,  as  in  Fig.  168,  the  power  being  applied 

at  the  surface. 

8.1.16.  Foot-valves  cannot  be  used  in  the  tube  wells,  on  account  of 
lack  of  space  there.  Therefore,  steam-ejectors  or  other  appliances  are 
required  to  prime  the  pumps.  The  check-valve  in  the  discharge-pipe, 
if  tight,  will  hold  the  water  in  the  pump  for  a  time. 

8.1.17.  Well-water  frequently  contains  a  large  amount  of  carbonic 
acid,  which  becomes  liberated  at  the  upper  end  of  the  suction-pipe,  and 
interferes  with  the  action  of  the  pump,  if  it  is  not  carried  along  by  the 
force  of  the  current  or  removed  automatically  by  special  appliances, 
such  as  a  small  air-pump  driven  from  the  axis  of  the  pump.  Pockets 
or  valves,  where  the  gas  may  lodge,  should  therefore  be  avoided  in  suc- 
tion-pipes. 

8.1.18.  One  difficulty  with  centrifugal  pumps  having  long  vertical 
shafts  attached  to  them,  is  the  friction  due  to  the  weight  of  these  shafts, 
and  the  unbalanced  pressure  on  the  pump  disk.  Where  electric  motors 
are  used  to  drive  the  pumps,  the  long  vertically  extended  shafts  can  be 


MINE   DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,   ETC. 


191 


avoided,  if  a  motor  with  vertical  axis  can  be  obtained  for  connection 
close  to  the  pump. 

8.1.19.  Power,  and  Its  Transmission  to  Reciprocating  and  Centrifugal 
Pumps.  Steam-,  and  sometimes  low-head  water-power  operating  by- 
means  of  turbines,  can  be  applied  for  driving  directly  reciprocating  and 
centrifugal  pumps. 

8.1.20.  A  power-plant  can  often  be  located  more  advantageously  to 
'  its  operating  expense  at  a  distance  from  the  pumping-plant  or  -plants, 

either  by  reason  of  cheaper  fuel,  due  to  saving  in  freight,  or  on  account 
of  the  availability  of  a  water-power.  In  such  cases  the  power  must  be 
transmitted  over  a  distance  to  the  pumping-plant. 

8.1.21.  It  is  generally  advisable,  then,  if  the  power  be  adequate  to 
drive  a  number  of  pumping-plants,  to  operate  them  all  from  one  large 
power-plant,  for  the  reason  that  a  larger  plant  can  be  equipped  with 
machinery  of  higher  mechan-  ^h-, 
ical  efficiency,  while  the  cost  of 
attendance  will  be  less  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  pump- 
ing subdivisions. 

8.1.22.  Wire  rope  transmis- 
sions would  have  but  a  rare 
application,  the  distances  to 
which  they  are  suited  being 
limited. 

8.1.23.  Compressed  air,  re- 
heated at  the  pump  engines, 
might  be  the  best  method  in 
cases  where  the  pumping  is 
variable,  where  a  good  effi- 
ciency is  desirable,  and  where 
steam  is  the  prime  motive 
power;  also,  where  the  distance 
of  transmission  is  not  too  great, 
and  where  reciprocating  pumps,  which  lend  themselves  best  to  operation 
by  steam  or  compressed  air,  constitute  the  water-raising  machinery. 

8.1.24.  For  great  distances,  and  for  operating  high-speed,  rotary,, 
water-raising  machines,  like  centrifugal  pumps,  electricity  is  in  general 
the  best  mode  of  transmission.  It  is  not  well  adapted  to  cases  where 
great  variation  of  speed  is  required. 

8.1.25.  Occasionally,  small  portable  plants,  consisting  of  a  centrifugal 
pump  with  steam  engine  and  boiler  on  wheels,  find  application.  These 
are  moved  about  by  means  of  horses  from  place  to  place  along  a  line  of 
ditches  or  canals.  Sometimes  a  pumping-plant  is  mounted  on  a  barge 
floated  on  the  canal. 

8.1.26.  Bucket- Wheels.  One  of  the  oldest  water-raising  appliances 
for  moderate  lifts,  is  the  bucket-wheel.  Fig.  197  shows  a  common  form. 
The  wheel  is  rotated  either  by  animal-  or  engine-power,  or,  as  is  most 
usually  the  case,  by  the  current  of  a  stream  from  which  it  lifts  the 
water,  being  fitted  in  this  case  with  paddles.  The  paddles  of  the  wheel 
are  best  made  curved,  or  bent  at  an  angle  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  of 
construction,  as  in  Fig.  198,  so  that  they  leave  the  water  in  a  vertical 
direction.     The  efficiency  of  paddle-wheels,  particularly  where  running 


B 


Fig.  197. 


192 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


in  an  unconfined  current,  is  very  low.  The  wheels  require  to  be  of  great 
width  to  obtain  even  small  amounts  of  power.  Where  the  water-level 
of  a  rapid  stream  does  not  vary  much,  stream  wheels,  though  inefficient 
mechanically,  afford  a  very  cheap  source  of  power  for  raising  moderate 
quantities  of  water.  Where  the  streams  can  be  confined  and  dammed 
so  as  to  raise  the  water  in  front  and  produce  a  head  which  acts  on  the 
wheel  by  its  weight,  the  efficiency  is  much  better,  and  the  power  much 
greater,  if  the  wheel  is  properly  constructed.  Wheels  so  situated  make, 
a  greater  number  of  revolutions,  because  the  paddles  then  travel  with 
the  same  velocity  as  the  water  which  leaves  the  wheel. 


Fig.  198. 

8.1.27.  Bucket-wheels  are  suitable  only  for  moderate  capacities.  The 
buckets  are  often  made  only  of  common  tin  cans  nailed  to  the  wooden 
arms  or  rim  of  the  paddle-wheel. 

8.1.28.  In  fixing  the  diameter  of  bucket- wheels,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  level  of  the  discharge-trough  is  considerably  below  the 
top  of  the  wheel.  Also,  that  the  distributing-troughs  must  have  suffi- 
cient grade  to  deliver  the  required  quantity  of  water  at  more  or  less 
distance  in  a  given  time. 

8.1.29.  Paddle- Wheels.  Where  large  quantities  of  water  are  to  be 
lifted  only  to  a  small  height,  like  in  some  of  the  drainage  undertakings 
in  Holland,  paddle-wheels  revolved  by  engine-power  in  a  curb,  as  in 
Fig.  199,  give  very  good  results.  The  curb  should  fit  the  wheel  as  close 
as  possible  without  touching  it.  The  paddles  should  be  inclined  so  that 
the  water  will  flow  from  their  surface  rapidly,  and  not  be  thrown  higher 
than  is  necessary.     Such  wheels  shouid  be  made  of  iron;  otherwise,  they 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


193 


will  swell  or  shrink  and  either  jam  in  the  curb  or  leave  too  much  clear- 
ance for  back  leakage.  The  back-flow  of  water  is  prevented,  when  the 
wheel  is  stopped,  by  a  check-gate  at  a. 

8.1.30.  Hydraulic  Rams.  The  hydraulic  ram  is  a  machine  in  which 
a  body  of  water  in  a  pipe  under  a  generally  low  drive- head  intermittently 
acquires  velocity  and  energy  of  motion,  by  virtue  of  which  a  part  of  the 
water  is  raised  to  a  height  generally  greater  than  the  drive-head,  while  a 
larger  part  is  permitted  to  escape  to  a  lower  level  during  the  time  that 
the  water  acquires  its  velocity.     Like  in  any  other  utilization  of  water- 


Fig.  199. 

power,  the  conditions  for  the  operation  of  a  ram  require  an  available 
fall  for  the  discharge  of  power-water  below  the  level  of  the  supply- 
reservoir. 

8.1.31.  The  essential  arrangement  of  a  hydraulic  ram  is  as  shown 
schematically  by  Fig.  200,  in  which  A  is  the  supply-reservoir,  from 
which  water  is  to  be  raised  to  the  elevation  H.  The  drive-pipe  B  enters 
the  air-chamber  C  of  the  ram  at  the  bottom,  where  the  opening  is  pro- 
vided with  a  check-valve  D,  to  arrest  the  back-flow  of  the  water  dis- 
charged into  the  air-chamber.  The  discharge-pipe  E  leads  from  a  low 
point  of  the  air-chamber,  in  the  manner  as  described  in  connection  with 
pumps.  Close  to  where  the  drive-pipe  enters  the  air-chamber,  there  is 
located  a  valve-chamber  F,  its  lower  end  open  to  the  pipe  and  its  cover 
on  top  fitted  with  an  inwardly  and  downwardly  opening  check-valve  G, 
called  the  overflow-valve. 

8.1.32.  To  explain  the  operation  of  the  machine,  suppose,  first,  that 


194 


MINE    DRAINAGE.    PUMPS,    ETC. 


the  valves  D  and  G  are  both  closed,  and  that  the  discharge-pipe  E,  as 
well  as  the  drive-pipe  D,  are  filled  with  water,  while  the  air-chamber  C 
contains  water  and  air.  If,  now,  the  overflow-A^alve  G  is  opened  by- 
forcing  it  down  from  its  seat,  it  will  remain  open  by  its  own  weight  for 
a  short  time,  while  water  will  start  to  flow  from  the  opening,  and  the 
water  in  the  drive-pipe  will  acquire  velocity  until  the  pressure  below 
the  valve  will  close  it  suddenly,  so  that  at  the  lower  end  of  the  drive- 
pipe  there  occurs  a  rise  of  pressure,  which,  if  sufficient,  will  open  the 
discharge-valve  D  against  the  pressure  on  its  upper  surface  and  force 
water  into  the  air-chamber,  compressing  the  air  therein,  which  in  turn 
drives  an  equivalent  amount  of  water  out  through  the  discharge-pipe 
and  delivers  it  at  the  level  L.  The  rise  in  pressure  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  drive-pipe  and  below  the  discharge-valve  D  increases  with  the 
length  of  the  drive-pipe  B,  and  with  the  ve- 
locity acquired  by  the  water  contained  in  it. 
When  the  energy  of  the  water  flowing  in  the 
drive-pipe  has  spent  itself  in  compressing  the 
air  in  the  chamber  C,  the  pressure  of  the  air 
on  re-expanding,  and  while  forcing  water  up 
through  the  discharge-pipe,  also  forces  part  of 
the  water  in  the  chamber  back  into  the  drive- 
pipe,  before  the  discharge-valve  D  has  time 

A 


Fig.  200. 


to  close,  thus  starting  a  backward  flow  in  the  drive-pipe.  The  discharge- 
valve  Dj  however,  suddenly  closes,  and  the  acquired  return  motion  of  the 
water  in  the  drive-pipe  reduces  the  pressure  at  its  lower  end  and  below 
the  overflow-valve  G  sufiiciently,  so  that  it  will  open  by  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  combined  with  its  own  weight,  and  thus  permit  water 
to  escape  from  the  drive-pipe,  thereby  again  starting  a  flow  toward  the 
ram,  when  the  operations  as  before  described  are  repeated  continuously. 

8.1.33.  The  length  of  the  drive-pipe  has  an  important  bearing  on  the 
action  of  a  ram.  It  should  be  the  longer  the  higher  the  water  is  to  be 
raised  by  a  given  fall  of  power-water.  It  can  be  shorter,  if  this  fall 
constitutes  a  large  proportion  of  the  lift,  or  equals  or  exceeds  it.  There 
should  be  as  few  bends  and  obstructions  as  possible  in  the  drive-pipe. 

8.1.34.  The  weight  of  the  overflow-valve  should  generally  be  small, 
but  should  be  capable  of  adjustment,  so  that  the  duration  of  overflow 
and  the  velocity  acquired  by  the  water  in  the  drive-pipe  can  be  regulated 
to  suit  the  lift.  The  overflow-valve  and  discharge-valve  should  be 
located  as  close  together  as  possible. 

8.1.35.  The  ordinary  rams  obtainable  in  the  market  are  only  suitable 


MINE  .  DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


195 


Ins. 

12  6  O 

I.  I   I   r  I   I   I   I   I   I   r  I   I 


Fig.  201. 


196 


MINE    DKAINAGE,    PUMPS,.  ETC. 


for  small  capacities  and  moderate  lifts.     Special  rams  have  been  con- 
structed to  meet  such  conditions  as  a  supply  of  300,000  gals,  per  day. 

8.1.36.  The  common  forms  of  rams  are  very  inefficient  appliances 
mechanically,  particularly  when  used  for  higher  lifts.  The  blow 
occurring  on  the  closing  of  the  overflow-valve  causes  a  great  loss    of 


30 


Fig.  202. 


energy,  and  limits  the  size  and  capacity  of  the  ordinary  machines.  The 
pretty  general  impression  prevails  that  the  blow  or  shock  on  the  closing 
of  the  overflow-valve  is  a  necessary  function  without  which  a  ram  could 
not  operate.  That  this  is  erroneous  is  shown  by  some  very  large  high- 
lift  rams  of  recent  construction.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the 
ram  designed  and  patented  by  H.  D.  Pearsall,  which  is  illustrated  in 
Figs.   201    and   202.     In  this  machine  the  functions  of   the  balanced 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


197 


overflow-valve  W  are  made  directly  independent  of  the  action  of  the 
water  in  the  drive-pipe.  The  opening  and  closing  of  W  is  controlled 
by  a  small  compressed-air  engine  M  mounted  on  the  air-chamber  V 
and  operated  by  the  compressed  air  contained  therein,  the  amount  used 
being  replenished  at  each  pulsation  by  air  trapped  in  the  chamber  A. 
This  chamber,  which  is  called  the  ante-chamber,  is  kept  filled  with  air 
at  atmospheric  pressure  coming  in  through  the  tube  G  up  to  the  time 
that  the  water  on  rising  in  A  reaches  the  wooden  float  B  with  the  valve 
C  and  closes  the  lower  end  of  G,  thus  cutting  off  communication  with 
the  outer  air.  The  air  remaining  in  A  is  compressed  until  it  overbal- 
ances the  pressure  on  top  of  the  discharge-valves,  when  it  rises  into  the 
air-chamber  in  advance  of  the  water.     The  discharge  of  the  water  from 


f/       a  I4H <    H</     /        /t  6m    ^A>//*.  . 


Fig.  203. 

V  is  effected  by  the  compressed  air  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  ordinary 
rams.  As  the  column  of  water  in  A  and  in  the  drive-pipe  P  falls  back 
the  float  B  and  valve  C  sink,  uncovering  the  lower  end  of  G  and  admit- 
ting air  into  A.  At  the  same  time  the  compressed-air  engine  if  again 
opens  the  overflow-valve  W,  and  the  water  in  P  begins  to  acquire 
velocity  for  a  new  impulse.  Instead  of  operating  the  valve  W  by  a 
compressed-air  engine,  it  could  also  be  worked  by  a  small  waterwheel 
driven  by  a  nozzle  from  the  discharge-pipe. 

8.1.37.  None  of  the  rams  heretofore  described  are  suitable  for  raising 
water  by  suction,  and  they  require  to  be  placed  at  the  level  of  the  over- 
flow from  the  drive-pipe.  It  is,  however,  often  convenient,  particularly 
for  irrigation  and  land-drainage  purposes,  to  locate  the  ram  at  a  higher 
level,  in  which  case  it  must  necessarily  draw  the  water  up  from  the 
supply-reservoir. 

8.1.38.  A  double-acting  ram  of  this  description  was  designed  by  the 
Belgian  engineer  Leblanc,  for  raising  water  from  a  level  below  that 
of  the  discharge,  by  means  of  an  independent  supply  of  power-water 
situated  at  a  higher  level.     It  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  203.     A  is  the 


198 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


supply-reservoir  for  the  power-water;  B  C  D  the  discharge-pipe  leading 
therefrom  and  corresponding  to  the  drive-pipe  of  the  ordinary  ram.  It 
might  in  this  arrangement  be  properly  termed  the  draft-pipe.  S  G  is 
the  upper  part  of  the  suction-pipe  leading  up  from  the  excavation  to  be 
drained.     The  power-water  here  flows  past  the  open  valve  V  into  the 


Fig.  204. 


Fig.  205. 

discharge-pipe  BCD,  therein  acquiring  velocity,  increasing  until  the 
pressure  beneath  the  nearly  buoyant  valve  V  is  reduced  so  that  the 
pressure  above  it  forces  it  to  its  seat.  As  the  water  in  B  C  D  continues 
its  motion  it  will  create  a  suction  effect  in  front  of  the  suction-valve  W, 
which  then  opens  and  allows  water  from  the  suction-pipe  S  G  to  follow 
the  water  in  B  C  D.  As  soon  as  the  energy  of  flow  has  spent  itself, 
the  column  in  both  pipes  begins  a  retrograde  motion,  and  the  valve  W 
is  suddenly  closed,  thereby  cutting  off  the  exit  of  the  water  in  B  C  D, 
which  then  spends  its  remaining  energy  of  return  flow  in  forcing  open 


^ali 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC.  "^fc  199 

the  valve  F,  and  thus  prepares  the  conditions  for  the  next  discharge 
flow  in  5  (7  D. 

8.1.39.  The  machine  illustrated  is  made  double-acting  by  the  use  of 
two  discharge-pipes,  two  suction-valves  TF,  and  two  arresting-valves  V 
and  F',  the  latter  being  balanced  by  suspension  from  the  opposite  ends 
of  a  double-armed  lever  K.  By  this  arrangement  a  more  perfect  func- 
tioning of  the  apparatus  is  secured,  because  the  discharge  flow  in  one 
discharge-pipe  occurs  at  the  same  time  as  the  more  feeble  return  flow  in 
the  other,  so  that  the  more  powerful  suction-action  of  the  discharge,  by 
closing  its  arresting-valve  F,  will,  at  the  same  time,  aid  in  lifting  the 
other  valve  F'  over  the  returning  column  in  the  other  discharge-pipe. 

8.1.40.  Another  machine  of  the  ram  type,  which  also  raises  water  by 
suction,  but  which  is  designed  to  work  under  different  conditions  than 
the  Leblanc  ram,  is  the  so-called  siphon  water-elevator  of  Lemichel  & 
Co.  of  Paris,  which  was  exhibited  at  the  Midwinter  Fair  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. This  machine,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  204,  is  intended  to 
raise  water  from  a  supply  at  the  level  -4  to  a  higher  level  J5,  by  means 
of  a  discharge  to  a  lower  level  C;  these  conditions  being  similar  to  those 
under  which  the  ordinary  ram  is  called  on  to  operate,  but  with  the 
difference  that  in  this  case  the  machine  raises  water  by  suction,  and  is 
located  at  the  highest  level  5,  identical  with  that  of  the  delivery  of  the 
water  intended  to  be  raised  for  a  useful  purpose. 

8.1.41.  This  machine  employs  the  principles  of  action  both  of  the 
ram  and  of  the  siphon,  and  should,  therefore,  more  properly  be  called 
the  "  siphpn  ram  "  instead  of  "  siphon  elevator." 

8.1.42.  The  operation  of  the  machine  is  as  follows:  On  opening  the 
valve  F  in  the  discharge-  or  draft-pipe  /i,  Fig.  204,  the  water  in  the 
siphon  begins  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the  discharge  level  C,  falling 
in  h  and  rising  in  the  suction-pipe  rt,  and  acquiring  velocity  of  flow 
until  the  force  of  the  latter  is  sufficient  to  close  the  check-valve  c  in  the 
chamber  6.  The  exit  of  the  moving  water  in  a  being  thus  cut  off  sud- 
denly, the  momentum  of  the  water  spends  itself  in  raising  the  outlet- 
valve  d  and  discharging  a  portion  of  the  column  over  the  edge  of  the 
valve-seat.  During  this  time  the  downward  momentum  of  the  water  in 
the  discharge-column  h,  causes  a  reduction  of  pressure  within  the  regu- 
lator g  (which  here  performs  the  functions  of  the  air-chamber  in  the 
ordinary  ram),  so  that  the  elastic  corrugated  heads  tt-^  are  forced  inward 
by  the  overpressure  of  the  atmosphere  until  the  energy  of  the  water  in  h 
is  spent,  when  a  return  flow  takes  place  toward  the  check- valve  c,  which 
now  opens  through  the  combined  action  of  the  return  flow  both  in  U  and 
in  a,  assisted  by  the  weight  r  on  the  level  I,  Fig.  205.  The  functions 
described  take  place  in  a  very  brief  period  of  time,  the  number  of  pulsa- 
tions being  from  150  to  400  per  minute.  The  chamber  gr,  with  elastic 
heads,  is  here  substituted  for  the  air-chamber  on  the  ordinary  ram, 
because  under  the  low  pressure  the  air  would  not  have  much  cushioning 
effect  and  would  also  cause  the  pulsations  to  be  too  slow.  The  air, 
which  is  liberated  at  the  exceedingly  low  pressure  at  the  highest  point, 
just  like  in  a  siphon,  is  here  expelled  with  the  water  through  the  dis- 
charge-valve d.  If  this  were  not  the  case  the  apparatus  would  not 
operate  for  many  minutes. 

8.1.43.  It  is  claimed  that  by  this  machine  the  water  may  be  raised 
at  sea-level  to  a  height  of  about  30'  above  the  supply-reservoir  A.  For 
greater  lifts  a  series  of  superposed  siphons  may  be  used,  the  upper  ones 

14 — MD 


200 


MINE    DRAINAGE,    PUMPS,    ETC. 


decreasing  regularly  in  capacity,  as  they  can  raise  only  a  part  of  the 
water  raised  by  the  siphon  below  them. 

8.1.44.  Fig.  206  shows  an  application  of  the  siphon  ram  or  elevator, 
in  which  the  water  delivered  to  irrigate  land  below  a  main  ditch  is 
utilized  to  raise  a  less  quantity  of  water  to  a  small  ditch  at  a  higher 
level  for  the  purpose  of  irrigating  land  situated  above  the  main  ditch. 

8.1.45.  The  siphon  ram  is  offered  in  capacities  of  from  250  to  3,000,- 
000  gals,  per  twenty-four  hours. 

8.1.46.  All  rams,  in  order  to  operate  efficiently,  should  be  specially 
designed  to  suit  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  expected  to  work. 
They  will  work  efficiently  only  within  narrow  limits  of  variation  of 
capacity,  because  the  proper  period  of  the  pulsations  is  fixed  by  the 
proportions  of  lift  to  fall,  and  the  lengths  of  the  pipes. 

8.1.47.  In  obtaining  a  supply  of  water  for  useful  purposes,  the  ques- 


FiG.  206. 


tion  often  arises  as  to  which  is  the  cheapest,  both  in  first  cost  and  in 
operating  expense:  a  long  ditch-line  or  flume,  or  a  shorter  one  starting 
at  and  delivering  the  water  to  a  lower  level,  in  combination  with  a 
pumping-plant  to  bring  the  water  up  the  remaining  height  to  the 
required  level.  It  must  also  be  considered  whether  it  is  necessary  to 
raise  all  the  water  to  the  entire  elevation,  and  if  part  of  it  may  not  be 
delivered  at  the  lower  level  accessible  by  the  shorter  ditch. 

8.1.48.  It  is  to  be  determined  also  whether  such  a  pumping-plant  is 
required  to  operate  during  the  entire  year,  or  only  for  a  part  of  the  time. 
Like  mine-draining  by  pumps,  the  probable  number  of  years  during 
which  the  plant  will  be  needed  is  also  a  factor  which  enters  into  the 
choice  of  arrangement. 

8.1.49.  It  is  impossible,  in  a  treatise  of  this  kind,  to  give  more  than 
suggestions  as  to  apparatus  and  mode  of  operating  it  which  are  best 
suited  to  the  requirements.  Conditions  in  practice  are  so  varied  and 
present  so  many  unforeseen  problems  that  it  would  go  beyond  the  scope 
of  this  Bulletin  to  attempt  detailed  consideration  of  particular  cases. 
The  proper  treatment  of  such  can  only  be  carried  out  in  special  articles 
devoted  to  each  case. 


IISTDEX. 


Section,  Chapter, 
A  and  Paragraph. 

Acid,  Carbonic,  in  water - 8.1.17 

Air,  Absorption  of,  by  water --. 1.2.56—3.1.16 

Compressed.    (See  Compressed  Air.) 3.5.01—3.1.10—3.5.13 

Balancing  pumprods  by --- 2.2.54 

Cummings  system  of  transmission.. 3.5.13 

Efficiency  of  power-transmission  by 

3.5.01—3.5.02—3.5.03—3.5.05—3.5.09—3.5.10—3.5.13—3.5.17—3.5.24 

Expansion  of 3.3.02—3.5.02—3.5.08 

Freezing  of  moisture  in -.-     3.5.02 

Pipes...- 1-2.57 

Pumps  driven  by. --- ---     3.5.01 

Receivers - -- 1.2.60-3.5.19 

Reheating 3.5.03—3.5.05—3.5.06—3.5.07—3.5.17 

Measurement  of - - 6.5.02. 

Compression       3.5.02—3.5.05—3.5.11—3.5.20-3.5.23 

Compound - 3.5.04-3.5.09 

Heat  of. ...3.5.02—3.5.11—3.5.13 

Compressor,  Power  suitable  for  driving - 3.5.21 

Volumetric  effect  of 3.5.23 

Chambers 1.2.36—1.2.42—1.2.43—1.2.44-2.5.43—3.1.03—3.1.16-3.1.18-3.1.19 

In  pumps.    (See  Priming.) 1.1.12-1.1.13-2.3.30-2.4.09-2.6.07 

In  suction-pipes --- 1.2.36 

In  water-pipes - —  ----     1-2.52 

Liberation  of,  from  water - 1.2.55—1.2.56 

Lift  pump ...6.1.01—6.5.01—6.5.02—6.5.03-6.5.04—8.1.06 

Angle-bobs - —     2.2.57 

Animals,  Amount  of  work  capable  of  being  done  by... 6.7.14 

Bailing  by . 6.7.09-6.7.10-6.7.11 

Centrifugal  pumps  operated  by 6.7.12 

Methods  of  applying  the  work  of 6.7.07—6.7.08—6.7.09 

Operation  of  water-raising  machines  by  men  and ..6.7.13—6.7.14 

Artificial  head  for  hvdraulic  engines 3.6.01—3.6.03—3.6.07 

Artificial  sump I 5.1.02-6.1.01-6.2.13-6.7.01 

B 

Bailing - .2.5.25—7.1.03 

By  animals.    (See  Animals.) 

Efficiency  of - - --- - - 5.1.09 

Plants..-- - - -     7.1.03 

Of  Susquehanna  Coal  Co - ----    5.1.07 

Tanks — - - - 1.1.01-5.1.01 

As  relay  during  repair  of  pumps 5.1.07 

Artificial  sump  for - - 5.1.02-6.1.01-6.2.13-6.7.01 

Capacities  of - -    5.1.07 

Conditions  for  employment  of 5.1.07—5.1.08 

Discharge  of - - 5.1.03-5.1.05-5.1.06 

Dumping - -- 5.1.06 

In  inclines - - --•     5.1.08 

In  vertical  shafts - - 5.1.08 

Stations  for  charging - -- 5.1.04 

Sumps  for - 5.1.02-6.1.01 

Tandem - ----     5.1.07 

Vacuum - - - ---     5.1.03 

Balance-bobs 2.2.47-2.2.50-2.2.51 

Balancing-arrangements  for  pumprods  ..2.2.46—2.2.53-2.2.54—2.2.56-2.2.57—2.6.08—2.6.10 

Belt-driven  crank-pumps 4.1.01 

Boiler-plants... - - -.2.5.27—7.1.05 

Buckets,  Lift-pump- - - ■^•■'■•^^"oooc 

Bucket-valves,  Lift-pump - ---    2.3.26 

Bucket-wheels -...  — - - 8.1.06-8.1.26-8.1.27-8.1.28 

Bucket-plungers - --- 3.1.15 


202  INDEX. 

C  Section,  Chapter, 

and  Paragraph. 

Carbonic  acid  in  water,  Effect  on  action  of  pumps 8.1.17 

Casing 1.2.09 

Centrifugal  pumps 1.1.01—1.1.07—6.2.01—6.2.12—8.1.06 

Balancing. _ .      6.2.09 

Compound 6.2.11 

Formulas  for  speed  and  lift  of 6.2.02—6.2.03—6.2.04—6.2.06—6.2.07 

In  wells 8.1.15 

Operated  by  animals 6.7.12 

■  Portable.-- 8.1.25 

Priming  of 6.2.08—8.1.16 

With  vertical  axis 6.2.10—8.1.13—8.1.15—8.1.18 

Chinese  pump , -- .6.7.06—8.1.06 

Coal,  Consumption  of,  by  steam-driven  pumps... 3.4.14 

Coatings  for  pipes - - 1 1.2.46—1.2.47—1.2.48—1.2.49 

Combination  Shaft,  Pumping-plant  at _ 2.6.14 

Compressed  air -.3.1.10—3.5.01—3.5.13 

Balancing  pumprods  by 2.2.54 

Cummings  system  of  transmission 3.5.13 

Efficiency  of  power-transmission  by -. - 

3.5.01—3.5.02—3.5.05—3.5.09—3.5.10—3.5.13—3.5.17—3.5.24 

Expansion  of -.3.3.02—3.5.02—3.5.08 

Freezing  of  moisture  in .- -.    3.5.02 

Pipes .-•..- - — .     1.2.57 

Measurement  of -.:..- 6.5.02 

Pumps  driven  by - 1.5.02—6.5.01 

Receivers - - ..- 1.2.60—3.5.19 

Reheating ..- 3.5.03—3.5.05—3.5.06—3.5.07—3.5.17 

Compression  of  air 3.5.02—3.5.05—3.5.11—3.5.20—3.5.23 

Compound 3.5.04—3.5.09 

Heat  of 3.5.02—3.5.11—3.5.13 

Compressors,  Air,  Power  suitable  for  driving - - 3.5.21 

Volumetric  effect  of 3.5.23 

Condenser - 3.2.04—3.4.08 

Condensing -.3.4.07—3.4.10—3.4.11 

In  suction-pipe 3.4.08—3.4.09—3.4.10 

Cornish  engines _.- - 2.5.05 

Cornish  plungers,  Attachment  of,  to  pumprods - -_    2.4.04 

Cornish  pumping-plantS-- 2.1.01 — 2.6.14—7.1.10 

Cornish  pumping  system.  Limits  of 2.1.08 

Cornish  pumps  - 2.1.01 

Balancing  work  of 2.2.46—2.253—2.2.54—2.2.56—2.2.57—2.6.08—2.6.10 

Double-acting.-- - 2.1.06—2.1.07 

Lubrication  of -- - 2.4.04—2.4.05—2.6.06 

Operation  and  care  of - 2.6.01 

Putting,  out  of  operation --- 2.6.08 

Regulation,  priming,  starting,  etc.,  of 2.3.29—2.6.01—2.6.02—2.6.03 

Relative  size  of  a  series  of 2.2.61—2.4.24—2.6.03 

Repairs  and  stoppages  of - -2.6.08 — 2.6.09 

Station-tanks  of.... - 2.4.16—2.6.12 

Speed  of - 1.2.38—2.2.41—2.4.24—2.6.05—2.6.14 

Valves - -. 2.6.08—2.6.11 

Water-raising -.. - 2.6.11 

Crank-driven  pumps.- 4.1.01  to  4.1.08—6.7.05—6.7.11—6.7.12 

Operated  by  electric  motors .-4.1.02—4.1.06 


D 

Davie  pump  engines 2.5.06—2.5.09—2.5.10—2.5.11—3.6.02—3.6.03 

Deep-well  pumps  -- 8.1.06  to  8.1.10 

Differential  plunger  pumps -.- 3.1.13 — 3.1.15 

Direct-acting  pumps 

1.1.05—2.3.10—2.3.28—3.1.15—3.2.01—3.2.02—3.2.04—3.3.05—3.4.02—3.4.08—3.4.11 

Direct-acting  sinking-pumps 2.3.10—2.3.28—3.1.15—3.2.02—3.2.04—3.3.05 

Direct-driven  pumps L1.05— 1.3.03— 3.1.01— 3.7.06— 7.1.11 

Air-chambers  on.    (See  Air-chambers.) 3.1.03 — 3.1.04 

Hanarte's .- - 3.1.06 

Lift  of.-.- - - 3.1.06 

Non-rotative _. 3.1.02-3.2.01 

Priming  of.    (See  Priming.) 3.1.05 

Riedler's - 1.3.18—3.3.04 

Rotative .- -_.     3.3.01 

Speed  of -- ..-- 3.1.03—3.1.04—3.1.06 

Stroke  of 3.1.03 

Transmission  of  power  to -.3.1.01—3.1.10—3.4.01—3.5.01—3.6.01 


INDEX.  203 

Section,  Chapter, 
and  Paragraph. 

Direct-driven  pumps,  Operated  by  steam 3.4.01 

Operated  by  compressed  air. 3.5.01 

Operated  by  hydraulic  pressure 3.6.01 

Valves  of.    (See  Valves.) 3.1.06 

Double-pipe  system  of  compressed-air  transmission 3.5.13 

Drainage  of  land -.- - -- - 8.1.01 

Drainage  pumps : ---8.1.06—8.1.07—8.1.11 

Duplex  pumps - 3.1.02—3.1.12—3.2.01—3.2.04—3.3.02—4.1.02 

E 

Ejectors - - 1.1.01—2.3.33—6.3.01—6.3.03 

Elasticity  of  pumprods -- 2.1.08—2.2.01 

Elbows - - --     1.2.34 

Electricity  as  power  to  drive 4.1.01—4.1.02—4.1.06—4.1.08—7.1.07—8.1.10—8.1.24 

Elevator,  Water- 6.7.06—8.1.06 

Siphon--- - - 8.1.40 

Engines,  Adapted  for  sinking 2.5.05—2.5.12—2.5.19 

Beam ..- 2.5.01 

Compound 2.5.07 

Condensing : .- ..2.5.17-2.5.25 

Cornish.    (See  Cornish.) --.- 2.5.05 

Davie.    (See  Davie.) 2.5.06— 2.5.09  to  2.5.11 

Direct-acting.    (See  Direct-acting.) -..    2.5.02 

Gasolene 8.1.05—8.1.10 

Geared.    ( See  Geared.) 2.5.01—2.5.18—2.5.20-2.5.21—2.5.22—2.5.23 

Hoisting,  for  bailing  - - .  - 2.5.07—2.5.08—2.5.09—2.5.27 

Hydraulic.    (See  Hydraulic  Engines.) 2.5.29—2.5.37  to  2.5.45 

Kley - -    2.5.15 

Location  of,  at  surface - 2.5.25 

Mechanical  efficiency  of  rod-pumping 2.5.28 

Non-rotative - 2.5.01—2.5.04—2.5,05—2.5.07—2.5.08—2.5.10—2.5.11 

Pumping - 2.5.01 

Regnier - -- —     2.5.16 

Rod-pumping - -.- 2.5.01 

Rotative 2.5.01—2.5.12—2.5.14—2.5.15—2.5.16 

With  vertical  cylinders - 2.5.03 

With  inclined  cylinders 2.5.13 

Expansion  of  air .-.3.3.02—3.5.02—3.5.08 

Of  steam -- - -..2.5.06—2.5.10—3.3.02 

Of  joints-- --- 1.2.28—1.2.29—1.2.30 

F 
Flange-packing  .- 1.2.23—1.2.24 

Flanges,  Pipe - --. 1.2.09—1.2.17—1.2.18—1.2.19—1.2.20 

Foot-valve  - —2.3.20—3.1.05—3.2.05—6.2.08 

Foundations  of  Cornish  plunger  pumps 2.4.17  to  2.4.19 

Of  direct-driven  station  pumps 3.3.06 

Freezing  of  moisture  in  compressed  air 3.5.02 

Of  water  in  pipes -- 1.1.13 

6 

Gaskets,  Flange..- -- 1.2.23—1.2.24—1.2,25 

Gasolene  engines  for  driving  pumps 8.1.05 — 8.1.10 

Geared  duplex  pumps -.- 4.1.02 

Geared  engines  for  operating  pumprods 2.5.01 — 2.5.08 

Geared  pumps -...-- 4.1.01 

Driven  by  steam  or  compressed-air  engines 4.1.05 — 4.1.07 

Driven  by  electric  motors 4.1.01—4.1.02—4.1.06—4.1.08 

Driven  by  waterwheels ..4.1.01 — 4.1.02 — 4.1.04 

Speed  of - 4.1.07 

Triple  plunger 4.1.02 

Gearing  for  operating  pumprods 2.5.01— 2.5.18— 2.5.20  to  2.5.23—2.5.32 

Gearing  pump,  of  Chas.  Bridges  ... -- 2.5.21 

H 

Hanarte's  pump --- -.. - 3.1.06 

Hand  pumps --- 6.7.02  to  6.7.06 

Hoisting  engines  for  bailing 2.5.27—5.1.07—5.1.08—5.1.09 

Hoists,  Pump 2.2.10—2.5.19 

Hose,  Steam,  in  shafts - 3.2.07—6.3.03—6.3.04 

Horse-powers 6.7.11 


204  INDEX. 

Section,  Chapter, 
and  Paragraph. 

Horses,  Bailing  by 6.7.09  to  6.7.11 

Centrifugal  pumps  operated  by 6.7.12 

Crank  pumps  operated  by.. _ 6.7.11 

Work  of 6.7.07 

Horse-winch 6.7.10 

Hydraulic  motors  for  operating  pumps  through  rods 2.5.29 

Power 3.6.01 

Pumping-engines  ..-- ...2.5.29—2.5.37—2.5.38—2.5.45—3.6.01 

Operation  by  natural  head -3.6.01—3.6.03—3.6.07 

Operation  by  artificial  head 3.6.01—3.6.03—3.6.07 

Underground 2.5.45—3.6.01 

Pumprods ....3.6.01—3.6.04—3.6.05—3.6.06 

Rams.    (See  Rams.) 8.1.06—8.1.30 

Capacity  of 8.1.35—8.1.45 

Duplex -.     8.1.39 

For  raising  water  by  suction 8.1.37  to  8.1.46 

Leblanc's -     8.1.38 

Le  Michel's.. ....8.1.40  to  8.1.46 

Pearsall's 8.1.36 

I 

Inclines,  Bailing-tanks  in.. 5.1.08 

Cornish  pumps  in 1.2.38—1.3.19—2.2.41—2.3.06—2.4.03—2.4.04—2.4.06—2.4.07 

Direct-driven  pumps  in 3.7.08 

J 

Jackhead  pumps 2.3.06—2.3.29 

Jet-lifters.    (See  also  Steam-ejectors.) 6.1.01— 6.3.01  to  6.3.05 

Hydraulic 6.3.02 

Steam 6.3.01— 6.3.03  to  6.3.05 

Joints,  Expansion 1.2.28 

Flange.    (See  also  Flanges.) 1.2.04—1.2.17  to  1.2.20 

Leaded 1.2.17—1.2.22 

Normandy ..1.2.26—1.2.27 

Pipe 1.2.09-1.2.13—1.2.15—1.2.17—1.2.18—1.2.20—1.2.23—1.2.25-1.2.67 

Pumprod.    (See  Pumprods.) 2.2.05—2.2.14 

Screwed -pipe.. 1.2.09—1.2.17—1.2.20 

Slip.    (See  Telescope-pipes.) 1.2.28-3.2.07—6.3.03—6.4.01—6.4.07 

K 

Karlick's  sinking-pump 2.3.33 

Kley's  pumping-engine 2.5.15 

Knight's  hydraulic  pumping-engine 6.3.03 

Sinking-pump 2.3.30 

L 

Lift,  Admissible,  of  pumps 

1.1.05—1.1.15—2.3.05—2.3.31—2.3.32—2.3.33—2.4.23—3.1.06—6.2.02—6.2.11—6.4.01—6.5.01 

Admissible  suction,  of  pumps ...1.1.09 — 2.3.21 

Suction 2.3.21 

Lift-pumps,  Admissible  lift  of 1.1.03—2.3.31 

Admissible  suction-lift  of 2.3.21 

Air .  —  6.1.01-6.5.01—8.1.06 

Airin.    (See  Priming.) 2.3.30 

Buckets  of - 1.1.03—2.3.26—2.3.27—2.3.28 

Bucket-packing  of 2.3.26—2.3.28 

Bucket-valves  of 2.3.26 

Column  of-. 1.2.14—2.3.12—2.3.13—2.3.28 

Column  discharges 1.2.36—2.3.12—2.3.34 

For  inclines.. ...2.2.42—2.3.06—2.3.30 

Frames  and  guides  of 2.3.05—2.3.33—2.3.35 

In  series,  for  high  lifts 2.3.32 

Jackhead 2.2.42—2.3.06—2.3.29 

Karlick's -    2.3.33 

Lowering  of ....2.-3.16-2.3.30 

Pipes  for  regulation,  priming,  and  draining  of 2.3.29 

Priming  of .-.. 2.3.23 

Protection  of,  during  blasting 2.3.18 

Rods  of  2.2.02—2.2.04—2.2.18—2.2.21—2.2.22—2.2.42—2.3.11—2.3.16—2.3.31 

Suction-pipes  of 2.3.05—2.3.17—2.3.20—2.3.22 

Suction-strainers  of 2.3.18 

Volumetric  effect  of 2.3.37 

Wear  and  tear  of - - ..1.1.03—2.3.03—2.3.26 


INDEX.  205 

Section,  Chapter, 
and  Paragraph. 

Low-lift  reciprocating  pumps 6.1.01 

Lubrication  of  pumps 2.4.04—2.6.06—3.1.09 

Of  pumprods 2.2.36 

M 

Mass,  Influence  of  moving,  of  Cornish  pumping-plants 2.2.01 — 2.2.52 — 2.2.60 

Men,  Crank  pumps  worked  by -  6.7.05 

Work  of,  in  raising  water ..6.7.02  to  6.7.06 

N 

New  Almaden  pump  engine 2.5.13 

Non-rotative  pump  engines 2.1.03—2.5.01—2.5.04  to  2.5.11 

Pumps..- 3.2.01 

Nozzles,  for  waterwheels,  adjustable 2.5.35 

Multiple 2.5.34 

O 

Obstruction  of  shaft  by  pumps -- ..2.4.22-2.4.26-3.7.08 

Ontario  pum ping-engine 2.5.13 

Pumping-plant 2.6.14 

Oregon  pine,  qualities  of 2.2.09 

Overman  pump  engine 2.5.06 

P 

Paddle-wheels ..8.1.06—8.1.29 

Packing 1.2.23—1.2.28—1.2.29—1.2.30—2.4.05—3.1.08 

Bucket 2.3.26 

Flange 1.2.23—1.2.25 

Piston 3.1.08 

Plunger 2.4.05—3.1.14 

Rubber 1.2.23 

Pipes,  Admissible  velocity  of  water  in .1.2.36—2.6.13—3.1.04 

Air  in  water- 1.2.36—1.2.52 

Air- valves 1.2.52 

Butt-welded 1.2.08 

Cast-iron 1.2.03 

Condensed-air 1.2.57 

Copper 1.2.06—1.2.46 

Corrosion  of 1.2.05—1.2.50 

Corrosion  of,  protection  against 1.2.46  to  1.2.50 

Dimensions,  weights,  and  strength  of  pipes  in  the  market 1.2.09  to  1.2.11 

Discharge  ends  of  column 1.2.36—2.3.12—2.3.34 

Drive,  oframs 8.1.33 

Expansion  and  contraction  of 1.2.28 

Expansion-joints  of .1.2.28—1.2.34—1.2.65—3.2.07 

Flanges  of.    (See  Flanges.) ...1.2.09—1.2.17 

Influence  of  size,  length,  and  course  of,  on  working  of  pumps. .1.1.09 — 1.2.02 — 1.2.36 
Joints  of  sections  of.    (See  Joints.)..1.2.09— 1.2.17— 1.2.18— 1.2.20— 1.2.22— 1.2.26— 1.2.67 

Lap- welded 1.2.07 

Material  of 1,2.03 

Non-conducting  covering  for  steam.    (See  Steam-pipes.) 1.2.57 

Receivers  at  ends  of  steam  and  air 1.2.60 — 3.5.19 

Repairs  to 1.2.68—1.3.29 

Required  strength  of 1.2.41 

Resistance  to  flow  in 1.2.64 

Riveted ....1.2.07—1.2.12—1.2.14 

Screwed 1.2.09—1.2.17—1.2.20 

Sections  of,  lengths  of. 1.2.08 

Sections  of,  means  of  connecting.    (See  Joints;  Pipe-joints.).. ..1.2.09 — 1.2.17 

Sinking  column.    (See  Lift-pump.) ...1.2.14-2.3.12—2.3.28 

Slip-joints  in 1.2.28—3.2.07—6.3.03—6.4.01—6.4.07 

Spring-relief  pistons  and  plungers  on 1.2.44 — 3.1.20 

Stays  for  column ._.    1.2.31 

Steam 1.2.28—1.2.57—1.2.61—3.4.01 

Strength  of ._ 1.2.10 

Stop- valves  on 1.2.66—1.3.28 

Suction __ 1.2.36-2.3  05—2.3.17-2.3.20-2.3.22 

Suitable  for  columns  in  shafts 1.2.23—1.2.31—1.2.34 

Telescope .-. 3.2.07— 6..3.03— 6.4.01— 6.4.07 

Water-ram  in.. 1.2.36—1.2.42—1.2.66—2.6.11 

Wooden 1.2.06 

Wood-lined.- ...1.2.06—1.2.50 

Wrought-iron L2.04— 1.2.07 


206  INDEX. 

Section,  Chapter, 
and  Paragraph. 

Piston  leakage. - 3.1.09 

Lubrication - ---    3.1.09 

Packing - 3.1.08 

Pumps - - 1.1.02—1.1.06—2.3.30—3.1.07 

Sinking-pumps .- - ---     2.3.30 

Spring-relief 1.2.44—3.1.20 

Plunger-harrel - - -- 2.4.08 

Plunger-friction - --- 2.4.06 

Plunger-lubrication 2.4.04—2.4.05—2.4.06—2.6.06 

Plunger-packing.    (See  Packing.) 2.4.05—3.1.14 

Plunger-pumps .1.1.04—2.4.01—3.1.11—3.4.14—3.7  )1 

Admissible  lift  of - 2.4.23—3.1.06 

Admissible  speed  of 2.6.14—3.2.01—3.3.03—3.3.06 

Air  in ...2.4.09—2.6.07 

Cornish.    (See  Cornish  Pumps.) 2.1.01—2.4.01 

Admissible  lift  of 2.4.23 

Admissible  speed  of 2.2.01—2.4.23—2.6.14 

Air  in 2.6.07 

Balancing  stroke-work  of 2.2.46—2.2.53  to  2.2.57—2.6.08—2.6.10 

Communication  between  stations  of 2.4.27 

Connection  of,  to  supply-tanks. 2.4.14 

Double-acting 2.1.06 

Equalizing  stroke-work  of 2.2.46—2.2.53  to  2.2.57—2.6.08—2.6.10 

Extra  parts  of -- 2.4.25 

Foundations  for 2.4.17 

Handling  valve-doors  of 2.4.13 

In  inclines - 1.3.19—2.2.41 

Lowering  and  raising  heavy  parts  of 2.4.27—2.4.28 

Putting,  out  of  operation 2.6.08 

Regulation  of  relative  capacity  of  a  series  of-.2.4.12— 2.4.16— 2.6.03 

Relative  size  of  a  series  of.. 2  2.61—2.4.24-2.6.03 

Repairs  and  stoppages  of-. 2.6.09 

Stations  of 2.4.21-2.4.26 

Tanks - 2.4.15—2.6.12 

Valves  of 2.6.08—2.6.11 

Water-ram  in - 2.6.11 

Differential... 3.L13— 3.L15 

Direct-acting 3.2.01 

Direct-driven _.. 3.1.11— 3.L15 

Settling  sand  in  water  to  be  handled  by 2.4.14 

Used  for  sinking -.-    3.1.15 

Plunger  sinking-pumps 3.1.14 

Plunger  stuffing-boxes 2.4.05 

Plungers,  Attachment  of,  to  pumprods 2.4.04 

Bucket 3.1.15 

Differential ....3.1.13-3.L15 

Double 1.1.12-1.2.38 

Material  of - --. 2.4.04-3.L11 

Protection  of,  against  acid  water 2.4.04 

Triple 1.2.38-4.1.02 

Unpacked ---     3.1.14 

Wear  of Ll.04-2.4.03— 2.4.07 

Power,  Animal.. ....6.2.13-6.7.01-6.7.14 

Electric  transmission  of 4.1.01—4.1.06—4.1.08—7.1.07—8.1.05—8.1.10—8.1.24 

For  operating  pumps L1.14— 2.1.03— 2.5.01— 2.5.29— 

3.1.01— 3.4.01— 3.6.01— 6.2.13— 6.7.01— 7.1.05— 7.1.06— 8.1.05— 8.1.10— 8.L19— 8.1.22 

Hydraulic 2.1.03—2.5.20—2.5.29—2.5.37—3.6.01 

Transmission  of - 3.6.01 

Of  men _ ...6.7.02—6.7.14 

Steam 1.2.57—2.1.03—2.5.01—3.1.01—3.4.01—4.1.05-5.1.07 

Transmission  of,  by  compressed  air 3.5.01 

Transmission  of,  for  operating  pumps 

1.1.05—1.1.14—2.1.01—2.1.03—2.2.01—2.3.11—3.5.01— 

3.6.01—3.6.04—4.1.01—4.1.02—4.1.06—4.1.08—6.2.06—6.2.13—7.1.07—8.1.10—8.1.24 

Watt's -. 2.1.03-2.5.29—2.5.37—3.6.01 

Priming-  .     1.1.13—2.3.23—2.6.01—3.1.05—6.3.03—6.4.05—6.6.08—6.6.10—8.1.16 

By  ejectors... 6.2.08—6.3.03 

Centrifugal  pumps 6.2.08—8.1.16 

Pulsometers 6.4.05 

Reciprocating  pumps LL13— 2.3.23-2.6.01— 3.1.05-6.3.03 

Siphons-...:.. .-. 6.6.08-6.6.10 

Pulsometers Ll.Ol— 2.3.33— 6.4.01 

Capacity  of .- 6.4.08 

Connection  to  steam-pipe  of 6.4.01 


INDEX.  207 

Section,  Chapter, 
and  Paragraph. 

Pulsometers,  Efficiency  of -- 6.4.08—6.4.09 

Hall's 6.4.01 

Korting's 6.4.09 

Lift  of 6.4.01—6.4.06 

Sinking  with... 6.4.01—6.4.07 

Pump-column.    (See  Pipes.) 

Pump  engine.    (See  Engines.) 2.5.01 

Pump-hoists - 2.5.19—3.2.10 

Pumps,  Admissible  speed  of 2.6.14—3.2.01—3.3.03—3.3.06 

Admissible  suction-lift  of ,....1.1.09—2.3.21 

1,  Air  in.    (See  Priming.) 1.1.12—2.3.30—2.4.09—2.6.07 

Air-lift 6.1.01-6.5.01—8.1.06 

Balancing  work  of ...2.2.46—2.2.53—2.6.08—2.6.10 

Belted  crank 4.1.01 

Buckets  of  lift. 1.1.03—2  3.26 

Bucket-plunger « 3.1.15 

Care  and  operation  of 2.6.01 

Centrifugal.    (See  Centrifugal  Pumps.).. 1.1.01—1.1.07—6.1.01—8.1.06 

Chinese 6.7.06—8.1.06 

Compressed  air  as  a  means  for  driving.     (See  Compressed  Air.) 

3.1.10—3.5.01—4.1.05 

Control  of  speed  of ....3.4.04-^.1.05—4.1.07 

Cornish.    (See  Cornish  Pumps.) 2.1.01—2.1.08—7.1.10 

Crank 4.1.01—6.7.05—6.7.11 

Differential  plunger 3.1.13-3.1.15 

Direct-acting ...1.1.05—2.3.10—2.3.28—3.2.01—3.2.04—3.4.02 

Direct-driven 1.1.05—1.3.03—3.1.01—3.7.06—7.1.11 

Distribution  of,  in  shafts 1.1.15—7.1.10 

Deep-well 8.1.06  to  8.1.10 

Double-acting 3.1.02 

Duplex .3.1.02—3.1.12—3.2.01—3.2.04—3.3.02 

Electricity  as  a  means  for  driving.    (See  Power.) 3.1.01—4.1.06—4.1.08—7.1.07 

Features  desirable  in  mining 1.1.18 

Geared.    (See  Geared  Pumps.) 4.1.01 

Hanarte 3.1.06 

Hand 6.7.02  to  6.7.07 

In  inclines 1.2.38—1.3.19—2.2.41—2.3.06—2.3.30—2.4.03—2.4.06—3.7.08 

Jackhead 2.3.06—2.3.29 

Karlick's  sinking... 2.3.33 

Knight's  sinking 2.3.30 

Land  drainage  . .8.1.06—8.1.11 

Lift.    (See  Lift  Pumps.) ....1.1.02— 

L1.07—  2.3.01—  2.3.05—  2.3.31—  2.3.33—  2.4.23—  3.1.06—  6.2.02—  6.2.11—  6.4.01  —6.5.01 

Low-lift  reciprocating Ll.Ol— 6.1.01— 8.1.06 

Lubrication  of.. 2.4.01—2.6.06—3.1.09 

Non-rotative.    (See  Direct-acting  Pumps.) 3.2.01 

Overworking _ 2.6.14 

Piston L1.02—L1.06— 2.3.30— 3.1.07 

Plunger.    (See  Plunger  Pumps.) 1.1.04—2.4.01—3.1.11—3.4.14—3.7.01 

Power  for  operating.    (See  Power.) 

Priming  of.    (See  Priming.) 

1.1.13—2.3.23—2.6.01—3.1.05—6.3.03—6.4.05—6.6.08—8.1.16 

Regulating  pipes  for  Cornish ...2.3.29—2.6.02 

Riedler 1.1.05—1.3.18—3.3.04 

Rotative 1.1.05—3.3.01—3.3.06—3.4.03 

Steam  direct-driven _.-. ...3.4.01—3.4.14 

Station-tanks  for ^ .  2.4.16—2.6.12—3.4.12—3.7.01—3.7.03—4.1.05—4.1.07 

Shafts ....3.7.08—5.1.08—7.1.08 

Sinking.    (See  Sinking  Pumps ;  Lift  Pumps.)...1.1.02— 2.3.01— 3.L15— 3.2.02— 4.1.06 
Transmission  of  power  for  operating.    (See  Power.) 

Unpacked  plunger 3.1.14 

Valves.    (See  Valves.) 1.3.01—2.3.24—3.1.06 

Volumetric  effect  of 2.3.37—3.1.06 

Water-ram  in 1.3.16—2.6.11 

Fumprods 2.2.01 

Admissible  length  of 2.2.01 

Admissible  speed  of 2.2.01 

Adjustment  of  weight  of 2.1.04—2.2.43 

Angle-bobs 2.2.57 

Balancing  overweight  of 

2.1.04—2.2.02—2.2.05—2.2.43  to  2.2.46—2.2.54—2.2.56-2.6  08—2.6.10 

Balancing  by  division  of 2.2.57  to  2.2.59 

Compressed-air  balance  for 2.2.54 

Connection  of  sections  of... ...2.2.05—2.2.14  to  2.2.17 

15 — MD 


208  INDEX. 

Section,  Chapter, 
and  Paragraph. 

Fumprods,  Connection  of,  to  motive  power -.2.2.26—2.2.37 

Elasticity  of 2.1.08—2.2.01—2.2.61 

Guides  or  stays  for 2.2.02—2.2.35  to  2.2.37—2.2.40—3.2.11 

Hydraulic  balance  for 2.2.53 

In  inclines 2.2.41 

Influence  of  mass  of 2.2.01—2.2.52—2.2.60 

Iron 2.2.05—2.2.07—2.2.17—2.2.20—2.2.23 

Length  of  sections  of.. 2.2.11  to  2.2.13 

Lubrication  of .        2.2.36 

Material  of 2.1.04—2.2.05—2.2.07—2.2.08—2.2.09—2.2.11—2.2.17—2.2.20 

Plunger  connection  to  main 2.2.02 

Preservation  of 2.2.23  to  2.2.25 

Roller  guides  for  inclined 2.2.40 

Sinking.    (See  Sinking-Rods;  Lift  Pumprods.) 2.2.02—2.2.04—2.2.42 

Sinking-rod  connection  to  main 2.2.02—2.2.04—2.2.22—2.2.31 

Strains  in 2.1.03—2.2.15—2^.29—2.2.45—2.2.50—2.2.55—2.2.60 

Strapping-plates  for  wooden 2.2.14 — 2.2.15 

Sweep-stays  for  wooden ..    2.2.37 

Weight  of 2.1.04—2.2.43 

Wire  rope 2.2.63—2.3.02—2.3.13—2.3.34 

Wooden ....2.2.05—2.2.08  to  2.2.09—2.2.11—2.2.14—2.2.16—2.2.24—2.2.25  , 


Rams,  Duplex.    (See  Hydraulic  Rams.) 8.1.39 

Hydraulic.    (See  Hydraulic  Rams.) 8.1.06—8.1.30 

Capacity  of  hydraulic 8.1.35—8.1.45 

Hydraulic,  Leblanc's 8.1.38 

Le  Michel's.. .8.1.40  to  8.1.46 

Pearsall's 8.1.36 

Siphon 8.1.40 

Suction ..8.1.37  to  8.1.45 

Water 1.2.36—1.2.42  to  1.2.45—1.2.66—1.3.16—2.6. 1 1—3.6.07 

Receivers,  Air 1.2.60—3.5.19 

Reheating  compressed  air 3.5.05—3.5.14—3.5.15—3.5.17—3.5.18 

Relief- valves.    (See  Valves.) 1.2.45—3.2.05 

On  suction-pipes 3.2.05 

Riedler  pumps 1.1.05— L3.18— 3.1.06- 3.3.04 

Riveted  pipes 1.2.07—1.2.12—1.2.14 

Connection  of  sections  of... 1.2.13 — 1.2.15 

Admissible  strain  on  material  of,  when  not  subject  to  water-ram..     1.2.15 

S 

Sand-separation  for  sinking-pumps 3.2.06 

Sand-settling  in  tanks  of  rotative  pumps 2.4.14  to  2.4.16 

Shafts,  Pump.. ...3.7.08—5.1.08—7.1.08 

Sinking,  Kind  of  power  adapted  to 2.5.45 

Sinking-column 1.2.14—2.2.18—2.2.21—2.3.12—2.3.28—2.3.34—3.2.07  to  3.2.09 

Discharges 2.3.12—2.3.34 

Sinking-pump.    (See  also  Lift  Pumps.) L1.03— 1.1.16— 2.2.02— 2.3.01— 3.2.02— 4.1.06 

Admissible  lift  of - 1.1.03—2.3.31 

Admissible  suction-lift  of 1.1.09—2.3.21 

Aid  in 2.3.30 

Auxiliary  to .._ .2.3.33—6.3.01—6.3.03 

Cornish.    (See  Lift  Pumps.) 2.3.01 

Direct-acting ...2.2.04— 2.3.10— 2.3.28— 3.L15 

Efficiency  of  direct-acting ....3.4.01—3.4.02—3.4.08 

For  inclines 2.3.06—2.3.30 

In  series 2.3.32  to  2.3.34 

Jackhead... 2.3.06—2.3.29 

Karlick's 2.3.33 

Knight's  piston 2.3.30 

Manipulation  of .  .2.3.05— 2.3.30— 2.3.32  to  2.3.34—2.6.01—2.6.03—3.2.07  to  3.2.09 

Pipes  for  regulating,  priming,  etc.,  of 2.3.23—2.3.29 

Priming 2.3.23 

Protection  of,  during  blasting 2.3.18—3.2.05 

Rods  of 2.2.02—2.2.04—2.2.07—2.2.18  to  2.2.21—2.3.11—2.3.16 

Rods  of,  in  inclines.. 2.2.42 

Steam  engines  adapted  to 2.5.05—2.5.07—2.5.19—2.5.33 

Suction-pipes  of 2.3.05—2.3.17—2.3.20—2.3.22—3.2.05 

Suction-valves  of 2.3.24 

Telescope-pipes 3.2.07  to  3.2.09 

Wear  and  tear  of _ 2.3.03—3.2.06 

With  ejectors 6.3.01—6.3.03 


INDEX.  209 

Section,  Chapter, 
and  Paragraph. 

Slnklng-pump,  With  pulsometers 2.3.33—6.4.01  to  6.4.07 

Siphons - 1.1.01—6.1.01—6.6.01 

Air  in --- 6.6.04— 6.6.06  to  6.6.09— 6.6.11 

In  connection  with  pumps 6.6.04 

Influence  of  altitude  on  operation  of 6.6.04 

Influence  of  temperature  of  water  on  operation  of 6.6.04 

Priming 6.6.08—6.6.10 

Restarting.. 6.6.09 

Siphon-ram 8.1.41  to  8.1.45 

Slip-joints  in  pipes.    (See  Expansion-joints,  Telescope-pipes,  and  Pipes.) 

1.2.28—3.2.07—6.3.03—6.4.01—6.4.07 

Station-tanks ...2.6.12—3.7.01—3.7.03 

Station-pumps 3.4.12 

Steam,  PLxpansion  of 2.5.06—2.5.10—3.3.02 

Relay ^ 2.5.31 

Wire-drawing  of-. 2.5.06—2.5.10 

Steam-hoilers ..2.5.27—3.4.01—7.1.05 

Steam-ejectors 2.3.33—6.1.01—6.3.01—6.3.03 

Steam-pipe  connections  to  sinking  apparatus.    (See  Slip-joints ;  Telescope-pipes.) 

6.3.03—6.4.01 

Steam-pipes.    (See  Pipes.). 1.2.28—1.2.57—1.2.61—3.4.01 

Steam-power.   (See  Power.).2.1.03— 2.5.01— 3.1.01— 3.4.01— 4.1.05— 5.1.07— 6.3.01— 6.4.01— 7.1.05 

Steam-pump 4.1.05—6.1.02—8.1.06 

Steam-pump  engines 2.1.03—2.5.01  to  2.5.28—2.5.31-3.1.01—3.4.01  to  3.4.14—3.7.06 

Adaptability  of,  for  sinking 2.5.05—2.5. 12—2.5.19 

Compound 2.5.07—3.4.04 

Condensing 2.5. 17—2.5.25—3.2.04—3.4.07  to  3.4.11—3.4.13 

Cornish 2.1.03—2.5.05 

Davie 2.5.06— 2.5.09  to  2.5.11 

Direct-acting 2.5.01—3.4.02 

For  operating  Cornish  pumps . 2.5.01 

Geared 2.1.01—2.5.01—2.5.07—2.5.20  to  2.5.24—2.5.33—4.1.05 

Kley's 2.5.15 

Location  of,  at  surface 2.5.25 

Mechanical  efficiency  of. 

2.5.07—2.5.28—3.2.01—3.4.02—3.4.08—3.4.11—3.4.14 

Non-rotative 2.5.01  to  2.5.11—3.2.04 

Regnier's 2.5.16 

Rotative ..2.5.01—2.5.12—2.5.14—3.3.01 

Single-acting 2.1.03—2.5.05—6.1.01 

Suction-hose 2.3.05—2.3.17—2.3.20—3.2.05 

Suction-lift  of  pumps 1.1.09—2.3.21 

Suction-pipes 1.2.36—2.3.05—2.3.17—2.3.22—3.2.05 

Condensing  in.. 3.4.08  to  3.4.10 

Suction-ram 8.1.37  to  8.1.45 

Suction-strainer :.. 2.3.18 

Suction-valves.    (See  Valves.) 1.-.1.3.01— 1.3.13-2.3.24 

Sump 2.6.04—5.1.02—6.1.01—7.1.04 

Artificial.. 5.1.02—6.1.01 

T 

Tanks,  Bailing.    (See  Bailing-tanks.) 1.1.01—5.1.01 

Station 2.6.12—3.7.01—3.7.03 

Vacuum 5.1.03 

Telescope-pipes.    (See  Pipes.) 3.2.07—6.3.03—6.4.01—6.4.07 

Transmission  of  power  to  pumps.    (See  Power.) 

Tubing 1.2.09 

V 

Vacuum-tanks 5.1.03 

Valve-chambers 1.3.22—2.4.13—3.1.06 

Valve-faces 1.3.05—1.3.08—1.3.09 

Valve-seats... .1.3.07  to  1.3.12— 1.3.14 

Valve-seat  fastenings 1.3.22 

Valved  buckets  of  pumps 1.3.15—2.3.26 

Valves,  Action  of ...1.3.13— 1.3.16  to  1.3.18 

Area  of 1.3.13—3.1.06 

Cornish  pump 1.3.02—2.6.08—2.6.11 

Direct-driven  pump 1.. 3.03— 3.1.06 

Flexible 1.3.12—6.7.03 

Foot 2.3.20—3.1.05—3.2.05-6.2.08—6.3.03—8.1.15 

For  compressed-air  engines 35  16 

Hinged ...1.3.02— 1.3.05— 2.6.68— 2!6!  11 


210  INDEX. 

Section,  Chapter, 
and  Paragraph. 

Valves,  Inclined 1.3.19—2.2.41 

Leakage  of _ 1.3.04—1.3.13—2.6.11 

Lift  of 1.3.13—1.3.16 

Mechanically  actuated L1.05— 1.3.18— 3.1.06— 3.3.04 

Multiple 1.3.20—1.3.24—3.1.06 

Relief -...1.2.45—3.2.05 

Repairs  of 1.3.23—1.3.26—1.3.28—5.1.07 

Requirements  for  pump ^ 1.3.04—1.3.16 

Resistance  to  opening  of .1.3.10—1.3.12  to  1.3.14 

Riedler's L1.05— 1.3.18-3.1.06— 3.3.04 

Spring-loaded _ 1.3.16—1.3.21 

Stop .-..1.2.61—2.6.10 

Suction 1.3.01—1.3.13—2.3.24 

Types  of 1.3.01 

Weight  of 1.3.16—1.3.20 

With  multiple  seats 1.3.14 

Velocity  of  water  in  pipes.. 1.2.36—2.6.13—3.1.04 

W 

Water,  Air  in ..-1.2.52—1.2.56-3.1.18 

Carbonic  acid  in 8.1.17 

Water-elevator 6.7.06—8.1.08 

Water-pipes.    (See  Pipes.) 1.2.01—1.2.41 

Air  in 1.2.52 

Water-power.    (See  Power,  Hydraulic.) 2.1.03—2.5.20—2.5.29—2.5.33—3.6.01 

Water-pressure  engines.    (See  Hydraulic  Pumping-engines.) 8.1.10—8.1.24 

Water-ram 1.2.36—1.2.42  to  1.2.45— 1.2.66— 1.3.16— 2.6.11— 3.6.07 

Waterwheels - - 2.5.20—2.5.29—2.5.32—2.5.34—4.1.01—4.1.04 

Well-pumps 8.1.06  to  8.1.10— 8.1.13— 8.1.15— 8.1.18 

Wells,  Bored 8.1.03 

Wheels,  Bucket ...8.1.06— 8.1.26  to  8.L28 

Paddle... 8.1.06—8.1.29 

Water.    (See  Waterwheels.) 

Wooden  pipes.    (See  Pipes.) 1.2.06—1.2.16 

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